POSHAN

Abhiyaan
Social and
Behaviour Change
Communication
in Aspirational
Districts

Background to Study
POSHAN Maah in September 2018 was an exciting opportunity for several ministries to come together to push
social and behaviour change communication (SBCC) platforms and disseminate nutrition-related messages
to households. Through the use of Jan Andolan platforms, SBCC can empower women and families to make
better decisions regarding their health and nutrition. Data on the reach of platforms and their effectiveness in
disseminating nutrition-related messages was sought after to understand what went well and to continue to
improve SBCC strategy. In November 2018 IDinsight conducted a survey in 27 aspirational districts to assess
platform reach, recall of nutrition-related messages, and knowledge levels, attitudes and practices of pregnant
and lactating women (henceforth women, or PLWs). We also collected data on the reported activities of
Anganwadi workers. The findings are encouraging and indicative of the immense effort behind POSHAN
Abhiyaan. We hope it can help inform the strategy moving forward.

Questions We Can Answer

•W
 hich platforms have the greatest reach?
•W
 hich messages do women recall hearing?
•W
 hat are the recall levels of specific messages across each platform?
•W
 hat is the association between SBCC messaging and knowledge levels and practices?
•W
 hat are the remaining gaps between knowledge levels and practices?

Summary of Emerging Recommendations

1. Prioritise platforms with high reach (e.g. home visits, television, Village Health Nutrition Days, Community Based
Events) and further prioritise messaging through platforms with high recall rates (home visits and television).
2. Continue to disseminate messages frequently and through multiple platforms.
3. Prioritise messaging around behaviours where knowledge levels are lower.
4. Support higher self-efficacy by incorporating content on barriers and by increased targeting of family members.
 Methodology Selected Definitions
Research Design: Based on the Jan Andolan
Reach - women who report having been reached
guidelines and a theory of change that our team
by the platform in the last three months
developed for SBCC in POSHAN Abhiyaan, we
Recall - women who indicate they have heard
designed detailed questionnaires for pregnant
about the general nutrition-related message
and lactating women, and Anganwadi workers
from anywhere in the last three months
to assess the status of implementation and to
Knowledge - women who possess correct
inform SBCC strategy going forward. We received
knowledge of the behaviour
feedback on our questionnaires from the Ministry
Socio-economic index (quintiles) - constructed
of Women and Child Development, NITI Aayog,
using the Poverty Probability Index (PPI) for
and 8+ development partners. Our recall period for
India, factoring education level, number of
platform reach and message recall was the three
household members, and assets. Economic
months prior to the survey dates (approximately
quintiles range from 1 (lowest) to 5 (highest).
mid-August to mid-November), which included the
Please see online for a comprehensive list of definitions.
period of POSHAN Maah.

Sample: We constructed our sample to be representative at the district level of ASHA/AWW listed pregnant
women and mothers of children aged 1-24 months (“pregnant and lactating women,” or PLWs) across 27 NITI-
Aayog Aspirational Districts in 8 states. The sample comprised 50-70 ASHA/AWW catchments per district,
and approximately four PLWs per catchment, a mean of 200 women per district. This sample size provides
precision for district-level estimates with an absolute margin of error of 5 percent or less. The cumulative
sample size across all districts was 6,208 PLWs and 1,365 ASHA/Anganwadi workers. This brief presents
findings at the 27 district level (see Technical note in Appendix for more details).

Data Quality and Analysis: Several data quality systems were built into data collection to ensure high fidelity
to survey protocols and best practices. These included daily data quality checks, spot checks, random audio
audits of surveys, and back-checking a proportion of surveys. A team of over 300 surveyors and over 30 team
members closely oversaw data collection and data quality, flagging and resolving issues on a daily basis.

All figures presented in the main text show population weighted averages across 27 districts along with 95
percent confidence intervals.

Characteristics of the population

•6  3 percent of women reported to be literate
• 87 percent had a mobile phone in their household
•3  8 percent had a television in their household
•5  percent had a radio in their household
•2  0 percent of women indicated they rarely or never left the house
•7  5 percent of women are of Scheduled Caste, Scheduled Tribe, or Other Backward Caste

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Key Findings
1. Community Engagement and Interpersonal Communication (IPC) platforms and television reach the
most women. Community engagement and IPC approaches are the best at reaching women of all socio-
economic status.
Across the broad Jan Andolan categories of mass and digital media, mid-media, and community engagement &
IPC, the highest proportion of women (87 percent) report being reached by at least one community engagement
& IPC platform (see Figure 1). IPC platforms typically involve more face-to-face conversation between health
workers and beneficiaries. Comparatively, 60 percent of women have been reached by at least one mass or
digital media platform and 39 percent have been reached by at least one mid-media platform.

Figure 1: Reach of Platforms

Any Community Engagement & IPC 87

Home Visit 64
Community Engagement & IPC

FHW (elsewhere) 58

Village Health Nutrition Day 56

Community-based Event 31

ASHA Mothers Meeting 27

POSHAN Event 21

Video Shown by FHW 14

Other Event 14

Self-help Group 13

Any Mass & Digital Media 60

TV 43
Mass & Digital Media

Text Message 23

Voice Message 23

Newspaper or Magazine 12

WhatsApp 9

Radio 8

Facebook 7

Any Mid-Media 39

22
Mid-Media

Poster, Hoarding, Wall Painting

Audio Speaker 21

Audiovisual Van 14

Nukkad Natak 12

0 20 40 60 80 100

Percent

The top five platforms that reached women were: home visit (64%), frontline health worker elsewhere (58%),
Village Health Nutrition Day (56%), TV (43%), and Community Based Event (31%). Within home visits, 55
percent of women had received a home visit from an ASHA and 44 percent had received a home visit from
an Anganwadi worker. Mid-media platforms such as audio vans and nukkad nataks tended to have less reach
and digital media platforms had very limited reach. The bottom five platforms were: Nukkad Natak (12%),
Newspaper or magazine (12%), Whatsapp (9%), Radio (8%), and Facebook (7%).

The limited reach of some of the print, digital media and mid-media platforms may have been driven by lower
literacy rates, access to technology, and frequency at which pregnant and lactating women leave the house.

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 Home visits become especially important for the mothers who never leave the house (see Appendix for key
platform definitions).

When assessing platform reach across socio-economic groups, we find mid and digital media reaches more
women with a higher socioeconomic status. However, reach of community events and IPC does not suggest a
similar disparity and is in fact uniformly high across socioeconomic strata, suggesting this type of platform can
reach the most socially disadvantaged women (see Figure 2).
Figure 2: Reach of Platform types by
Socio-economic Quintiles 2. Household members of pregnant and lactating
women were approximately half as likely to be
100 Mass & Digital Media
88 reached by Jan Andolan platforms as compared to
the women themselves. Home visits were the platform
80 74 with the highest reach across all target audiences.
The likelihood that at least one family member was
reached by a given platform was about half the
60 56
53 likelihood of mothers being reached by the same
Percent

platform, though there was variation across platforms:

37 for home visits (the highest reach platform), family
40
members were 52 percent as likely as mothers of
being reached, for POSHAN events, the likelihood
20
was 57 percent. Given that SBCC aims to reinforce
messages through raising awareness of behaviours
across the whole family, this result is encouraging
0
First Second Third Fourth Fifth
because it suggests that family members are indeed
being reached across different platforms (see Figure
100 Mid-Media 3). Nevertheless, there is still considerable scope to
increase reach for family members.
80
Home visits had the greatest reach across all target
audiences (mother, any family member, mother-in-
60 53
law and husband). Given that mothers-in-law are a
Percent

key influencer, it is encouraging that 1 in 5 women

43
38
indicated their mother-in-law had received a home
37
40 visit. Less than 10 percent of women indicated that
28
their husbands had been reached by each platform,
suggesting that more targeted efforts may be needed
20
to encourage husbands to attend community events
or receive counselling during home visits.
0
First Second Third Fourth Fifth

100
Community Engagement & IPC
92
89 88
86
82
80

60
Percent

40

20

0
First Second Third Fourth Fifth

04
 Figure 3: Reach of Platforms Across Target Audiences

70 Mother 70 Any Family Member (other than Mother)

64

60 56 60

50 50

40 40
Percent

Percent
33
32
30 30
23
21
20 20 16
12
10 10

0 0
Home Village Health Community- POSHAN Home Village Health Community- POSHAN
Visits Nutrition Day Based Events Events Visits Nutrition Day Based Events Events

70 Mother-in-law 70 Husband

60 60

50 50

40 40
Percent

Percent

30 30

21
20 20
13
10 9
10 7 10
3 3
2
0 0
Home Village Health Community- POSHAN Home Village Health Community- POSHAN
Visits Nutrition Day Based Events Events Visits Nutrition Day Based Events Events

3. Recall levels of nutrition-related messages are not far behind

recall levels of sanitation messages.
The vast majority of women (80 percent) recalled hearing at least
one of the ten nutrition-related messages listed (see Figure 4).

The proportion of women who recalled each nutrition-related

message ranged from 30 to 53 percent. The messages with the
highest levels of recall were related to toilet usage (53%) and
handwashing or faeces disposal (49%), indicating the potential
reach of messages through the Swachh Bharat Mission in addition
to POSHAN Abhiyaan. Recall levels of nutrition messages such as
dietary diversity during pregnancy (42%), breastfeeding (39%),
and complementary feeding (36%) are not far behind.

Given the very recent launch of POSHAN Abhiyaan, it is also

encouraging that proportion of women who have heard about
POSHAN Abhiyaan and its slogans are at moderate levels.
Specifically, 22 percent of women had heard of POSHAN Abhiyaan
or POSHAN Maah, 21 percent had heard of “Sahi Poshan, Desh
Rohan” and 14 percent had heard “Har Gar Poshan Tyohaar”.

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 Figure 4: Recall of Messages
100

80
80

60
53
Percent

49
47
42
39 39
40 37 36 35
30

20

0
At Least Toilet Handwashing or Girls Age of Dietary Breastfeeding Institutional Antenatal Complementary Anaemia Girls Education
1 Message Usage Faeces Disposal Marriage Diversity During Delivery Care Feeding or Diet
Pregnancy

4. Knowledge levels vary substantially by behaviour.

Correct knowledge was assessed by testing women on how to practice a behaviour (e.g. when to breastfeed
a child after birth) and whether they could indicate the benefits or risks of certain behaviours. This differed
from measuring recall, for which women were asked whether they had heard anything about a topic and did
not assess correct knowledge.
Figure 5: Knowledge Levels

Girl marriage at 18 Age of girl marriage is >=18

Girl education until 16 Age until a girl should go to school is >=16

Antenatal check-ups should start in first

Anc within first trimester
trimester

Exclusive breastfeeding Baby should be fed only breastmilk for

6 months

Early initiation of breastfeeding Newborn should be breastfeed within

one hour

IFA during pregnancy Women should take IFA during pregnancy

Green veg. Deworming, ifa or nutritious

Prevention of anaemia
foods prevents anemia

Introduction of complementary foods Baby receives other foods and liquids

starting at 6 months
Wash hands with soap before feeding
Washing hands at critical times child & after defecation

4+ ANC check-ups Women should receive 4 or more anc

check-ups

Infection from open defecation Infection is a risk of open defecation

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Percent

The proportion of women with correct knowledge of the risk of infection from open defecation, four or more
antenatal care (ANC) check-ups, when to wash hands, and introduction of complementary foods is relatively
low (see Figure 5). Knowledge of iron folic acid (IFA) supplements during pregnancy, prevention of anaemia
and breastfeeding practices were higher than knowledge of introduction of complementary foods. More
women were knowledgeable about seeking ANC within the first trimester than the correct number of ANC
check-ups during a pregnancy (4 or more). The vast majority of women surveyed possess correct knowledge
of the minimum age of girl education until 16 and minimum age of girl marriage at 18.

Of note is that even though recall of toilet usage messages was the highest, knowledge of risk of infection from
open defecation was the lowest. This indicates the importance of ensuring that messages effectively convey
correct nutrition-relevant knowledge.

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5. Certain platforms are more effective in terms
TOP 5 PLATFORMS
of recall levels than others. Comparing reach
of platforms with their recall levels should be a
FOR RECALL OF EACH MESSAGE
criteria when determining which platforms to
further prioritise.
We can compare the reach of various platforms with
the recall levels for those same platforms to gain a
sense of which platforms have the greatest potential Home Visit FHW Friends/
for further investment (see Figure 6). Potential for (elsewhere) Family
investment can be defined as platforms that through
investment could have both high reach and high
recall levels. High reach is important because - as per
the SBCC theory of change shown in the Appendix
- women must first be reached by a given platform Television Community
in order to receive messaging through the same Based Event
platform. A high level of recall is important because
The Top 5 platforms women recalled hearing
the platform also needs to be effective in instilling each message from were consistent for each
the nutrition-related message to women such that of the 10 nutrition-related messages.
they can recall the message in the future.

Figure 6: Reach and Recall Rates per Platform

80
High Reach

60
Medium Reach
Percent

40
Low Reach

20

0
Home FHW Village TV Community- ASHA Text Voice Poster, POSHAN Audio Audiovisual Video Other Self-help Nukkad Newspaper Whats Radio Facebook
Visit (elsewhere) Health based Mothers Message Message Hoarding Event Speaker Van Shown Event Group Natak or App
Nutrition Event Meeting or Wall Painting by FHW Magazine
Day

Proportion reached by platform

Proportion who recall at least one nutrition-related message from platform out of reached

95% CI

Home visits and television have both high reach and high recall levels. Based on the above theory for platform
investment, these platforms represent ripe opportunity for further investment.

The Village Health and Nutrition Day platform has high reach as well (56%), but comparatively a much lower
level of recall (12%). This platform might also be worth further investment, as VHNDs are clearly already
reaching quite a few women. Now the focus may be on improving messaging such that the women who are
already at the VHND can receive nutrition-related information.

While the nukkad natak, radio, and WhatsApp platforms have been a policy priority, it is worth noting that they
have low reach and also low levels of recall. Platforms such as WhatsApp might still be worth investment for
other reasons, such as cost-effectiveness, but from the perspective of reach towards pregnant and lactating
women and recall level they are currently less promising than other platforms.

Although self-help groups and newspaper/magazines have low reach (13% and 12%, respectively), they have
moderate recall levels and are performing better than other low reach platforms in terms of recall levels (Self-

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 help group: 21%, Newspaper or magazine: 28%). Given the strategic focus on SHGs that already exists in many
geographies, this platform might also be worth investigating for further investment.

Finally, the potential high value platforms mentioned above are suggestions that come about from comparing
reach and recall levels. However, for a more robust set of recommendations on platforms to prioritise, policy makers
should combine this data with information on existing public sector strategic priorities and cost-effectiveness.

6. Frequency of exposure was the main reason women found messages memorable. Hearing messages
from more than one platform was associated with higher knowledge levels for several behaviours.
When women were asked why they found a specific message disseminated through a specific platform
memorable, the top reason indicated across all messages and platforms was that they had seen, read or heard
the content many times. This reason was consistent for all messages and all platforms. Consistent with the
multi-platform communication strategy which underpins the SBCC approach, this indicates that frequency of
content dissemination is one of the main drivers for recalling messages.

Furthermore, for several behaviours including 4+ ANC, prevention of anaemia, when to wash hands, and risk
of infection from open defecation, the proportion of women with correct knowledge was higher among those
who recalled hearing a general message about that behaviour from more than one platform as compared to
those who recalled hearing a message from only one platform.

7. Recalling a message is associated with higher knowledge and practice levels, suggesting SBCC potential
to change behaviour.
It is notable that recall of hearing a message recently (last three months) is consistently associated with higher
knowledge levels. The proportion of women with correct knowledge of a behaviour is consistently higher out of
those who recall hearing a message in the last three months versus those who do not recall hearing a message
in the last three months (see Figure 7).

Furthermore, the proportion of women practicing a behaviour is also significantly higher for women who recall
hearing a nutrition-related message in the last three months versus those that do not (see Figure 8). A higher
proportion of women (at least 4 months pregnant) consumed IFA tablets for 30 days last month out of those
who recalled a message about anaemia versus those who did not. Similarly, a higher proportion of women
consumed at least 5 food groups out of those who recalled a message about dietary diversity or food intake
during pregnancy versus those who did not.

These findings indicate the potential value of SBCC and messaging in promoting the correct knowledge and
behaviours. Of note is that while we find that SBCC messaging is strongly and positively correlated with
knowledge and behaviours, these are descriptive associations, meaning we cannot isolate the causal influence
of SBCC messaging from other unobserved factors.

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 Figure 7: Knowledge Levels by Recall Figure 8: Practice Levels by Recall

IFA Consumption Last Month

4+ ANC Check-ups
55
Infection from Open Defecation

31
Washing Hands at Critical Times

Introduction of Complementary Foods

Prevention of Anaemia
Does Not Recall Recalls Message
Message about Anemia about Anemia
Exclusive Breastfeeding

Girl Education Until 16

Minimum Consumption
Girl Marriage at 18 of 5 Food Groups
49
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Percent 32

Does not Recall Message

Recalls Message

95% CI Does Not Recall Message Recalls Message about

about Dietary Diversity Dietary Diversity

8. Lower levels of self-efficacy signal remaining

gaps between knowledge and practice.
Although the proportion of women with
correct knowledge is relatively high for several
behaviours, the proportion with perceived
self-efficacy (or confidence to perform a
behaviour in midst of potential barriers) and
the proportion practicing the behaviour are
lower (see Figure 9).

The proportion of women with correct

knowledge of IFA supplementation was 65
percent however the proportion of women who
indicated that they would want to complete
the course of IFA supplements even if they
experienced nausea or vomiting was much
lower, at 19 percent. Similarly, the proportion
of women with correct knowledge of exclusive
breastfeeding for six months was 70 percent,
while the proportion of women who felt they
could prevent others from feeding their
child anything other than breastmilk was 42
percent and the proportion who indicated they
exclusively breastfed their child was 56 percent.
This suggests that even when information is no
longer a barrier, other factors such as family
support and social norms, as well the ability to
manage side effects, may impede women from
practicing behaviours.

Given this, including appropriate support and

self-efficacy related messaging (along with
a continued focus on the correct knowledge)
may help women better translate knowledge to
practice.

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 Figure 9: Knowledge, Self-efficacy, and Practice Levels

Self Efficacy Measures

Has Correct Knowledge 65

Would want to complete IFA
IFA Has Self Efficacy 19 even with side effects
Practices Behavior 25

Has Correct Knowledge 67

Can convince others to let me
EIBF Has Self Efficacy 46 breastfeed within 1 hour
Practices Behavior 33

Has Correct Knowledge 70

Can prevent others from feeding child
EBF Has Self Efficacy 42
anything other than breastmilk
Practices Behavior 56

Has Correct Knowledge 28

Can find ways and means for
4+ ANC Has Self Efficacy 36
4+ ANC
Practices Behavior 18

0 20 40 60 80 100
Percent

Practice data for EIBF, EBF, and 4+ ANC are from the Aspirational Districts Survey

Emerging recommendations
1. Prioritise platforms with high reach (e.g. home
visits, television, Village Health Nutrition Days,
Community Based events) and further prioritise
messaging through platforms with high recall
levels (home visits and television).
Platforms that have high reach amongst pregnant
and lactating women should be prioritised, such as
home visits, television, Village Health and Nutrition
Days, and community-based events. Platforms with
high levels of message recall should be considered
for further prioritisation, including home visits and
television. Given that home visits involve one-on-
one counselling and messaging through television
has the advantage of frequency and consistency,
a strategy which combines interpersonal and
consistent messaging may generate higher recall.
Platforms that are promising and warrant further
promotion for nutrition-related messaging are self-
help groups, given that these are less costly, involve
interpersonal communication and have moderate
levels of recall.

As indicated earlier, the recommendations for platforms mentioned above come from a comparison of reach
and recall rates. However, policy makers will also need to take into account cost-effectiveness of platforms and
strategic priorities.

2. Continue to disseminate messages frequently and through multiple platforms

Messaging on nutrition-related behaviours should continue to be frequent and through multiple platforms even
during non-POSHAN Maah periods. Our data and SBCC literature suggest that frequency of messaging is key and
utilisation of several strategies (mass media, mid media, community engagement, interpersonal communication)
is more effective than any single strategy on its own. One potential approach for further exploration is to select a
few platforms to disseminate consistent messaging throughout the year.

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3. Prioritise messaging around behaviours where knowledge levels are lower
Given the large matrix of interventions within POSHAN Abhiyaan, the prioritisation of behaviours and content
for SBCC programming should be based on the behaviours with the lowest knowledge levels. In the Aspirational
Districts, knowledge levels greatly varied depending on the behaviour. For instance, knowledge of minimum age
of girl marriage is high, but knowledge of complementary feeding is significantly lower, potentially indicating
greater need for complementary feeding messaging.

4. Improve self-efficacy by incorporating content on barriers and increasing targeting of family members.
Messaging content should address the key barriers per nutrition-related behaviour, such as management of
side effects, convincing family members of the importance of certain behaviours, and providing information
on financial and other resources available through the health system. Such messages are key in order to help
improve the self-efficacy of pregnant and lactating women to perform these behaviours.

Increasing the targeting of messages to family members can improve the practical support such as resources
and assistance women receive to practice behaviours and further reinforce the communication of messages from
within her home environment. Given that home visits already have the highest reach across all target audiences,
one potential avenue to increase reach towards family members such as mothers-in-law can be through efforts
to ensure other family members are present and involved during home visits. For men, it is potentially useful to
consider other platforms such as WhatsApp, since they tend to have more access to mobile phones.

Note Authored by:

As per need, our data can also be separated for each of the 27 Aspirational Districts Divya Nair: Director, IDinsight
that we survey, and by literacy or Poverty Probability Index (PPI) levels. Such additional
analysis can enable policy makers to be even more targeted in terms of platform and Pulkit Agarwal: Manager, IDinsight
messaging investment. Crystal Haijing Huang: Economist, IDinsight
Acknowledgements Will Thompson: Economist, IDinsight
We would like to thank the Ministry of Women and Child Development, NITI Aayog, Nitya Agrawal: Associate, IDinsight
Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, UNICEF, World Bank, Ashoka University Centre for
Social and Behaviour Change, International Food Policy Research Institute, Alive & Anirudha Vaddaddi: Associate, IDinsight
Thrive, and BBC Media Action for their input and contributions to our study. Vinod Kumar Sharma: Field Manager, IDinsight

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 Appendix
Simple Theory of Change for SBCC

Reached practice
Message self-
by knowledge new
recall efficacy
platforms behaviour

Definitions of Platforms (Figure 1)

• Television - Percentage of women who watch television ever
•H ome Visit - Percentage of women who indicated that an ASHA or Anganwadi worker spoke to her in her
home to provide health or nutrition information or services in the last three months
•F HW (elsewhere) - Percentage of women who have met an ASHA, Anganwadi worker, or ANM elsewhere
other than platforms listed in the last three months
•C ommunity-based Event - Percentage of women who have attended a community-based event defined
by the survey as an Annaprasan Diwas, Godbharai, or Suposhan Diwas in the last three months
• POSHAN Event - Percentage of women who have attended a POSHAN event defined by the survey as a
POSHAN mela, rally, walk or Prabhat Pheri in the last three months
• Other Event - Percentage of women who attended any other event related to health, nutrition, sanitation
or gender in the last three months, such as a recipe demonstration, farmer club meeting, haat bazaar
activities, harvest festival, Bachpan Diwas, Podha Ropan, Saas Bahu Samellan, or other

Please see online for a comprehensive list of definitions per figure.

Technical Note
We employed a two stage stratified random sampling procedure. In the first stage we randomly
sampled polling stations from a district proportionate to the number of households on voter rolls; the
selection was stratified by assembly constituency (AC), meaning a greater fraction of polling stations
were drawn from more populous ACs. We then identified an ASHA or Anganwadi worker associated
with that polling station by randomly selecting a pregnant or lactating woman from the polling station
and identifying her ASHA or Anganwadi worker if the ASHA was not available. We asked each ASHA/
AWW to provide a listing of all the current PLWs in their catchment area and on their rolls. In the
second stage we randomly sampled four respondent PLWs from each of these lists.

While the sample was designed to be representative at the district level, this document presents findings
that have been pooled across all 27 of the study districts. Because sample allocation per district was uniform
at approximately 200 PLWs while district population varies widely, the sample selection was not conducted
with probability proportional to size and respondent mothers had unequal probabilities of selection. If
unequal probabilities of selection are correlated with characteristics that affect indicators of interest, then
estimates of those indicators may be biased. For instance, the outcomes of women from larger districts
contribute a relatively smaller share of the overall mean. If these larger districts are also associated with
more intensive SBCC efforts, then, without adjusting for unequal probabilities, an estimate of an outcome
such as average attendance at a POSHAN event would be lower than expected from the population.

We correct for this potential bias by applying sampling weights. A sample weight is the inverse
of one’s probability of selection into the sample- those with lower probabilities receive a relatively
higher weight in the final estimates, and those with higher probabilities of selection weigh less. We
calculate overall probability as the product of the probability of selection at stage one (probability a
catchment was selected) and stage two (probability of selection from a catchment list).

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