The Friars in the Philippines

Author(s): James A. LeRoy

Source: Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 18, No. 4 (Dec., 1903), pp. 657-680
Published by: The Academy of Political Science
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 THE FRIARS IN THE PHILIPPINES.
HE arguments forand againstthe Spanishfriars, whostill
constitutethe chiefproblemof the Philippines,are in
generalbased too muchon opinionand too littleon knowledge.
Attackson thefriarsare usuallycharacterized by glittering
but
unfounded generalities;
whileon theotherhand,thedefensesof
the friarsput forthin thiscountry,by ecclesiastics
and by lay-
men,both Catholicand Protestant, have in manycases been
eitherrecklesspartisandiatribeor verbatimtranslations of ex
partestatements comingfromthefriarsin theislands(thesources
almostneverbeinggiven). In thepresentarticleit is proposed
to statein briefest
outline,withmentionof the authorities, the
mainhistorical data as to theregimeof thefriarsin thePhilip-
pines.
Magellan'svoyageof discovery, I59-2I, and the subsequent
voyagesof Loaisa and Villaloboswereundertaken forcommer-
cial, notmissionary,purposes,beinginspiredby thehope of lo-
cating"spice islands" forSpain. Five friars(Augustinian) set
out withLegaspi on the expedition fromMexico whichfinally
resultedin permanent occupationof the Philippines.By some
recentPhilippinehistorians Legaspi is represented as the mere
plaything and tool of FriarAndr6sde Urdaneta,the leaderof
thesefive. Urdanetahad donnedtheAugustinian habitonlyat
aftera careeras soldierin Italy and as ship-captain
fifty-three,
and explorerunderLoaisa. He had a large part in planning
Legaspi'sexpedition, and he laid out the courseof theshipsfor
New Guinea. Thoughforcedto changethe courseunderthe
instructionsgivenby the Mexicanauthorities, Urdanetaand the
otherfriars,whenthe Philippines werereached,stillopposeda
permanentsettlement there. That such settlement was made,
indicateswellenoughthatLegaspi1was no tooloftheother. A
monthaftertheylandedon Cebu (April27, I565), Urdanetaand
anotherfriarsetsail forSpain,via Mexico,to reportto theking,
1 He had held prominentofficein Mexico, and he paid half the cost of the
expeditionwithhis property.
657

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658 POLITICAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY. VOL. XVIII.

and never returned. Before Legaspi's death in 1572, he had

foundedon Cebu thefirstSpanishtown,begunsettlement of the
centralislands,takenManila and establishedtherethe capital,
and had seenhalfofLuzon brought underSpanishsuzerainty.
Beforewe can justlyestimate thecharacter oftheworkdoneby
thefriarsamolngthe Filipinos,we musthave a fairidea of the
stateof thelatterat the timeof the Spanishconquest. Such a
fairidea it is difficult
to get. The earlyconquerors and mission-
aries werelittleinterested in the questionsof modernethnology
and socialscience,and werescarcelyfitted to answerthem. Re-
membering how the earlymissionaries to Mexicolaboredtode-
stroy,as worksof thedevil,thepicture-writing, thetemplesand
theothermonuments ofAzteccivilization, we shouldexpecteven
lesstoleration fromtheirbrethren in thePhilippines.The people
herewereof milderhabitsthantheAztecs; theyhad probably
no substantial architectural monuments, and theevidencesas to
theirstateof culturewereconsiderably fewer,and easierto de-
stroy. Of lateyears,particularly in theheatofcontroversy from
I863 to T898,therehas beena tendency on thepartoffriarand
pro-friar writersto depreciate theFilipinosin everyway. In the
loose stateof knowledge aboutthe pre-Conquest natives,it has
beeneasyto makeexaggerated chargesas to savageryand degra-
dationbeingprevalent beforetheSpaniardscame. On theother
hand,variousFilipinozealotsofthepastdecadeor so,emulating
JoseRizal in his effort to givehis peopletheirjust place in his-
tory,but lackinghis intelligence and scholarship,have gone to
ridiculous extremes in claiming fortheirracebeforetheConquest
a civilizationequal to thatthenprevailing in Europe,and charg-
ingthatthefriarsstifled it.
Those who represent the nativesas savagespure and simple
beforetheConquestdo notquotefreely fromFriarJuanPlasencia,
a Franciscan, whosetreatiseon thecustomsofthenatives(first of
its sort),in 1589,was adoptedby thegovernment fortheuse of
its officials;nor fromtheSucesosde las Islas Filipinas (I609)
of DoctorAntoniode Morga,a memberof the firstAudiencia
(SupremeCourt)of thePhilippines.These workscomenearest
to givinga good contemporary view,yetare mostunsatisfactory

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No. 4.] THE FRIARS IN THE PHILIPPINES. 659

and incomplete.They show,however, thattheFilipinosof the

centralislandsand Luzon's westerncoastsweresomewhatpast
theclan stageand had a politicalorganization underlocal chiefs
whichvirtuallyamountedto a mild feudalism,theirso-called
slaveryfitting betterunderthishead; thattheyhad a systemof
laws or customs,administered by the councilsof old men; that
theirreligiousideas,undeveloped and imbuedwithsuperstitions
as theywere,includednevertheless therecognition of a Supreme
Being (the contestbetweenMohammedanism and Christianity
amongtheseMalaysin thesixteenth century, withtheirreadiness
to accepteither,is significant
and illustrative);thattheyhad a
system ofwriting basedon a phonetic alphabet,doubtlessderived
fromthesamesourceas thatfromwhichourscamein thedawn
of history, and that some in each community could read and
write;thattheyhad longsincepassedthe nomadicstate- un-
doubtedly longbeforetheMalay migrations to thePhilippines.
Discardingexaggerations and mattersin doubt,we knowthat
polygamy was thenpracticedby Filipinosof sufficient statusto
maintainmorethan one wife;thatthe morality of the women
leftmuchto be desired,underthestandardthenobtaining, pub-
liclyat least,in Europeansociety;thatgambling was byno means
learnedfromtheSpaniards,thoughnewwaysof gambling were;
thatthe pettychiefswerefrequently at strifewithone another,
thesetribalwarsnotcontributing to theprogress or thehappiness
of thepeople;thatagriculture and suchartsas weaving,making
pottery, etc.,werein a primitivestate,as indeedtheystillare.
The nativeshad ironimplements of warfareand variousarticles
of othermetals,but contactwiththe continent of Asia explains
these. They werein regularintercourse withChina and with
Japan,Borneoand otherislandssomecenturies beforeSpanish
discovery. In his little-known workChao-Yu-Kua,a Chinese
geographerof the thirteenth century, describesthe Philippine
trade.' The Chinesethenobtainedfromthe Filipinosnot only
such raw materialsas yellowwax, cotton,pearls,tortoise-shells,
betel-nuts, cocoanutsand vegetables, but also jute fabrics(prob-
1 Chapter I. Dr. Ferdinand Blumentritt,the Austrian scholar, translated
this chapterforJose Rizal, comparingit withDr. Hirth's English version.

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66o POLITICAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY. [VOL. XVIII.

ablythosewovenfromabacd,Manila "hemp" as to-day),other

wovengoods (of cotton,Blumentritt suggests)and finemats.
The Filipinostook in exchangeporcelain,gold, iron,needles,
vases forperfumes and lance-heads,articlesof lead, silk para-
sols,black damaskand othersilks. Chao-Yu-Kuatellsof their
settlements,a thousandfamilieseach,theirhousesof cane being
clusteredon highplaces. This was nearlythreehundredyears
beforeMagellan.
As missionaries of the variousorders(moreAugustinians and
also Franciscans,Dominicans, and Recolletans)
Jesuits, arrivedin
greaternumbersafterI570, and the policyof occupyingthe
Philippinesbecamemorefixedat Madrid,the workof convert-
ing the nativesto Christianity and to some Europeanways of
livingwas takenup withfervor and pushedwithgreatzeal and
success,thoughnotuntilafterrepeatedattempts had beenmade
by manyof the friarsto abandonthe Philippinesforthe more
attractivefieldof China. The recordof peacefulconversions,
bythethousands almost,cannotherebe recapitulated.It reads
likea romance.No lessastonishing is thestoryof CaptainJuan
de Salcedo'swonderful marches inthenunknown Northern Luzon
and his almostpeacefulacquisition, withtheaid of a handfulof
soldiers,ofthousands ofsquaremilesof territory fortheSpanish
Crown.1 One is forced to ask himself how far theunwarlike,
docilenaturesofthenativesoftheindolent tropicscontributed to
theextension alike of militaryconquestand of religiouscon-
version. Friar Herrera,when dissuadingPhilip II fromthe
proposedabandonment of the Philippines,is said by a recent
Augustinian writerto have painted"with eloquententhusiasm
the simplenatureof the nativesand theirexcellentdispositions
of soulforreceiving thebenefitsofreligionand civilization."2
As alreadyseen,we mustrejectthe claim that thefriars intro-
duced villagelife; but undertheirguidancethe communities
centeredmoreand moreaboutthe churches, at firstrudewood
structures,but verysoon more or less imposingstoneedifices,
whichwerebuiltundertheirsupervision.Europeandressand

1 See JoseMonteroy Vidal,Historiade Filipinas,

Vol. i.
2 Fr. EladioZamora,Las Corporaciones Madrid,I90i.
enFilipinas,
Religiosas

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No. 4.] THE FRIARS IN THE PHILIPPINES. 66i

waysof familylifewereto some degreeurgedon the natives,

withadaptations to tropicalconditions.Naturally, thepadrewas
particularly desirous of bettering the ways of communication
throughtropicalforestsor overgrown country betweenthe vil-
lages forming his mission,and henceroadswereopened. The
friarsset to work also to improveagriculturalmethodsand
products.
Forcedlabor was made use of by the friarsin buildingthe
churchesand theirdwellings(called "conventos"), as by the
military-civil administrators in makinghighways, bridges,etc.
It was employedextensively also in providing shipsand fortifi-
cationsfordefenseagainsttheMoros,who periodically scourged
thecoastsof thecentralislandsand evenof Luzon. The friars
werealwaysmostvigilantand activein the operationsagainst
thesepirates,and hencewerecloselyidentified withthe system
through Whichlaborwas secured. This systemwas introduced
by the civilofficials and was a naturalone, underearlycondi-
tions- a sortof road-tax. It lateracquiredan unsavoryrepu-
tation. The laborthusowedto the government was frequently
hiredout to individuals,and public worksin manyprovinces
wereneglected, -whileofficial pocketswerelined.' Moreover,it
was one of thevariousinstitutions through whichtheburdenof
taxationin the Philippineswas put upon the poor; Spaniards,
mestizos, and thosefewpure-bloodnativeswho became" prin-
cipales" in theirtowns,wereexemptfromservice. The firstre-
voltsagainstSpanishauthority, exceptlittleconflicts duringthe
establishment of controlin Cebu, Leyte,and Manila between
I565 and 1590, werecaused by the ratherharshimposition of
forcedlabor. Suchrisingsweremerely local as a rule,butMon-
teroy Vidal describesone whichbeganin Samar in I649 with
themurder ofa Jesuit, and spreadoverthecentralislandsand to
Luzon and Mindanao. There was a similarrisingagainsta
Jesuitin Boholin 1750.2 In themain,however, themissionaries
were zealous to protectthe nativesfrom anything likeenslavement

'See Appendix to Retana's edition of Zufliga's Estadismo,under heading

" PoLlstas."
2 Monteroy Vidal, op. cit., Vol. i, p. 478.

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662 POLITICAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY. [VOL. XVIII.

or frombeingoverburdened withtributesby the conquerors to

whomSpain at firstgavewholeprovinces to rule.
The earlymissionaries were teachersbeforetheycould be
preachers.Thoughtheirinstruction was confinedto the cate-
chismand thelittlelearningincidental to this,no unprejudiced
personcan failto rendertributeto theirlaborsin mastering the
dialectsand in patiently knowledge
instilling which,thoughpre-
sentedin whatwe shouldto-daycall a narrowmanner, was never-
thelessboundto havean enlightening and upliftinginfluenceupon
thatpeople. It is to thecreditofthefriarsalso thatinstitutions
ofhigherlearning wereearlyformed in thePhilippines.But we
mustnotbe misledby somewriters intoimagining thatthiswas
a movement forthe fullereducationand cultureof thenatives.
The Collegeof St. Joseph,openedby the Jesuitsin i6oi, was
at the outsetforthesons of Spaniardsonly. The Dominicans'
Collegeof St. Thomas(styleda "royaluniversity" in I845) was
establishedfor the trainingof youngSpaniardsin theology.
Thesetwowerebitterenemies, theDominicans fora timekeeping
theJesuitsfromtherightto conferdegrees. Duringpartofthe
seventeenth century thenativeswereexcludedfrombothinstitu-
tions;but the Spanishgovernment, havingaided themwithdo-
nationsof land, requiredthemto enlargetheiraccommodations
and providefornatives. Governor Anda reported in I768 that
therewereonlyeightyor ninetyenrolledin bothcolleges. We
occasionallyhearof the "thousandsof Filipinos"graduatedby
them. In thenineteenth century themestizos (mostly
particularly,
the propertied class) have flockedto theirdoors;but compara-
tivelyvery,veryfewpure-blood Filipinoshaveeverhad anything
a
but village-school theyhavenotbeenable to afford
training; it.
Of the six secondary schoolsoutsideof Cebu and Manila,four
were,according to FatherZamorahimself, setup duringthepast
century.
The failureofthefriarsto securethegeneraluse oftheSpanish
languagein theislandshas beenmuchdiscussedin recentyears.
The firstroyaldecreedirecting thatall thenativesshouldreceive
instructionin Spanishwas issued in I585, and the injunction
was repeatedthreetimesin the seventeenth, and at least four
timesin theeighteenth, century.The end soughtby thesewas

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No. 4.] THE FRIARS IN THE PHILIPPINES. 663

not realized. But on the otherhand full recognition mustbe

givento the faithful and successfulworkof the earlyfriarsin
acquiringthenativedialects,withoutwhichtheirgreatmission-
ary achievements would have been impossible.At the same
time,it should be statedthat.theirwork in the dialectswas
notalwaysso scholarlyas it claimedto be. The earlyfathers
triedto arrangetheagglutinative Malay dialectsby the rulesof
the,only grammar they knew, the Latin; and theirunscientific
workis laughable,as wellas confusing, fora studentto-day.
By i6oo Manila had a hospitalforSpaniardsand a littlehos-
pitalfornatives,as well as a "house of mercy"and a Chinese
hospital(laterabandoned). The first printing-presswas at work
in Manila beforethelandingon Plymouth Rock. The statusof
womenhas longbeen higheramongthe Filipinosthaneveryet
anywhere else in the Orient;to thefriars'introduction of Chris-
tianitybelongsthe credit. The Filipinosseemby natureto be
so temperate, thatwe mustbe skepticaltowardthetalesof their
excessivedrunkenness and licentiousness at thetimeof theCon-
quest. If thefriarscouldso entirely reform a peoplein thisre-
spect,whyhave theynot checkedthe vice of gambling, forin-
stance,so demoralizing as it is in theislands? Beyondquestion,
however,theydeservecreditfora considerable improvement in
moralseffected betweenI565 and I700.
This "heroicage" of the missionaries, zealousin theirwork,
fatherlyprotectors of the natives,and wise colonizersand even
administrators forSpain,lasted,roughly speaking,untiltheend
oftheseventeenth century.By I700 nearlyall thelowlandFili-
pinoswere,nominally at least,Christians; all theprincipalislands
but Mindanaoweredividedinto parishesabout as completely
as to-day,thoughfurther subdivision was effectedlateras popu-
lationincreased;conversions to Christianityhenceforth werelim-
itedto thosesecuredby theJesuitsamongtheMorosand by the
desultoryefforts ofotherordersamongthewildmountain peoples
of otherislands. Missionarydays wereover;yetthe friarsre-
sisted,and have fortwo hundredyearssince resisted,secular-
izationof theirparishes. So, too, theyopposed,as theystill
oppose,anyinterference withthecontroltheyhad earlygainedin
local and centralgovernments. At thesame timetherewas ap-

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664 POLITICAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY. [VOL. XVIII.

parenta relaxationof the missionary fervor;no longerdid the

friar-writers
(as a rule)expressenthusiasm overworkamongthe
natives;a feelingof contempt forthemwas alreadytraceable.
So openedtheeighteenth century.
That century broughton the scenesome fewvigorous,inde-
pendentgovernors-general, who refusedto take friaradvice on
theirpoliciesor whowereunderexplicitinstructions fromSpain
to carryout measureswhichweredisapprovedby the orders;
hencethatcentury conflicts.In
is repletewithcivil-ecclesiastical
thelongrun,theorderstriumphed; fortheyoutlastedany gov-
ernor-general in Manila, and mostof the timetheydominated
at Madrid.
A suddenincreasein Spain of interest in the Philippinesfol-
lowed the resounding controversies
over trade regulations, be-
tweentheSpanishcitiesengagedin manufacturing silk,etc.,and
Spaniardsin Mexicoand thePhilippines.Earlyin theeighteenth
century,plansfortakingeducationmoreintothehands of the
government and forsecularizing theparisheswereformed, reach-
ingfromtimeto timethestageof decrees. The organization of
a seminaryto trainnativesforthe priesthood was decreedin
1702, but the ecclesiastical authorities
prevented the openingof
the institution until I772, when Governor-General Anda and
Archbishop Santa Justay Rufinawerein accord on it. The
kingdecreedin 1714 a secularuniversity, beginning withcourses
in theologyand law; and in I719 Manuel de Bustamante, the
Governor-General chargedwithcarrying out thisplan, was, as
a resultof variousstrifeswiththe orders,slain in the govern-
mentalpalace in Manila by mutineers organizedand led by the
friarsand Jesuits,the palace-guardfleeingbeforethe crucifixes
of thefathers.'
We beginto findin thiscentury also agrariandisturbances in
thevicinityof thefriar-estates, prototypes of therevoltsof I872
and i896. In 1743, thepeoplearoundBalayan,Batangas,had,
in protestagainstwhattheyconsidered usurpation of theirlands
by theJesuits(who thenhad estatesthere),led a revoltwhich
spreadovera largepartof Batangasand costtheSpanisharmy
(mostlynativesfromPampanga) a numberof lives.' In the
I See Monteroy Vidal, Vol. i, p. 413. 2 Ibid., Vol. i, p. 478.

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No. 4.] THE FRIARS IN THE PHILIPPINES. 665

same year and that followingthere were repeated and serious

disturbancesabout those Tagalog towns in Cavite, Manila and
Bulacan provinces,wherethe principalfriar-estates then lay and
still lie. Governor-GeneralGaspar de la Torre appointed a
special commissionerto investigatecomplaintsand to pacifythe
people. A royal Cedula of November 7, I751, summarizesthe
work of this commissioner,Judge Pedro Calderon Enriquez.
The documentrecitesthe people's complaintsthat the friarshad
"usurped theirlands withoutleaving them the libertyto fishin
the rivers,to cut wood, or even gatherthe wild fruitsin the for-
ests, or to pasture theircarabaos on the hills about the pueblos,"
and had exacted unjust chargesforthe use of the soil, forwater
to irrigate,forwood, etc. The commissionercitesinstanceswhere
friars' estates had been illegally enlarged throughcollusion of
governmentofficials,and is most explicitin his chargesof fraud,
corruption,and usurpationagainst both officersand friars. In
view of this report the king ordered a re-establishment, of the
legal boundaries,and suspended and heavilyfinedthe Secretary
of the Audiencia, who participatedwith the surveyorsin the
fraud. This very land, within at least some of the extended
boundaries as well as the original tracts,is the presentsubject
of negotiationbetweenGovernorTaft and MonsignorGuidi.
Simon de Anda, the vigoroussoldierwho, withhis nativetroops
fromPampanga, succeeded in confiningthe English in Manila
in I762-63, and thus probably saved the Archipelagofor Spain
at the making of the Treaty of Paris of I763, is a picturesque
figurein these friarcontroversies. The citywas pusillanimously
surrenderedby Archbishop Rojo, the ecclesiastic who was at
the time servingalso as Governor-General(a common practice,
thereafterforbidden). The Jesuitspromptlyraised the English
flag on their monasteryand went bodily over to the supposed
new sovereignty.' Though the otherordersfurnishedAnda with
financialsupport and otherwiseassistedhim,therewas yetmuch
division of loyaltyamong them, since he was denounced as a
usurperof authorityby the Archbishop. The antipathyengen-
dered by this and by othercauses was cherishedby Anda when
1 This was one reason assigned for theirexpulsionin 1768, thoughthat fol-
owed the generalorderfortheirexpulsion fromall Spanish dominions.

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666 POLITICAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY. (VOL. XVIII.

later he became governor-general, and he aroused bitteropposi-

tion from the Augustiniansand Dominicans, especiallyby his
supportof the effortsof ArchbishopSanta Justay Rufinato visit
and inspect the friars' parishes and to install secular priests.
Even beforethat,Anda had in I768 addresseda notable" Memo-
rial" to King Charles III, which the friar historiesomit. Its
titleis significant:

Memorial. .. detailingthirty-seven abuses or disordersthat have

grownup in thePhilippineIslandsunderthecloak of religionand at
the expenseof the Royal Treasury,whichoughtto be cut offat the
root,so thattheGovernors sentto thoseparts,if good,shallbe better,
and if bad, be no worse,and thatat leasttheymayhave no good ex-
cuse to offer[forshortcomings];thatthe King may be lord of those
dominions(up to now,he has beenso onlyin thepayingofthecosts);
and finally,thatthevassalsof His Majesty,Spaniardsas wellas Indi-
ans, be thevassalsonlyof theirKing and escapefromtheabominable
slaveryunderwhichtheyhave laboredfornearlytwo hundredyears.

Among the abuses cited are simony,excessivechurch fees, and

retrogressive educational methods. It is alleged that the friars
assume to be the supreme representativeof authorityand be-
little the dignityof lay officials; intrigue for the removal of
such officials,both small and great,who will not submitto dic-
tation; seek to keep other Spaniards than the friarsthemselves
out of the provincialtowns; fail to teach the natives the Span-
ish language; and in general encourage stagnationratherthan
progress.
Archbishop Santa Justay Rufinawas one ofthecomparatively
fewprelatesthePhilippines havehad whowerenotfriars. Gen-
uinelysolicitousforthe native'sbest welfareand earnestly
de-
sirousof curbingsomeof theabusesthathad grownup, he lent
himselfenergeticallyto co-operation
withAnda in measuresof
reform,civiland ecclesiastical.The openingof a seminaryfor
native priestshas already been noted. Anda also urged on the
home government the secularization
of all educationalinstitu-
tions,beginningwiththe Dominicanuniversity and secondary
school. The archbishoppromulgated a scheduleof feesto be
chargedforbaptisms,weddings,funerals,etc. The stormraged

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No. 4.1 THE FRIARS IN THE PHILIPPINES. 667

principally,however,about his efforts to enforceepiscopalvisi-

tationand inspection of the parishesin his diocese. This was
no newcontroversy; threearchbishops, one himselfa Dominican,
had assertedthe episcopalprerogative, and each in turnhad
eventually lost in the fightwiththe friars,who werepowerful
at Rome. The contention was that,whenthe friars,whowere
properlymissionaries, assumedthe functions of secular priests
in organizedsees,theybecamesubjectto thevisitation and dis-
ciplineof the bishop. The friarsalways insistedthat they
wereresponsible onlyto thesuperiors in theirorder,withwhom
the bishopsmustdeal. The triumph of thefriarsappears,not
in any decisionof theprincipleinvolved, but in the removalof
theprelateswhoopposedthemon thispoint.
The contestwagedby Anda and Santa Justaon one side and
the friarson the otherwas too violentand acrimonious not to
be attendedby extremeand recklessmeasureson both sides.
In hishasteto secularizetheclergyand hiszeal fortheadvance-
mentof the natives,the archbishopcaused Filipinopriests, too
oftenfittedneitherby generaleducationalnor by ecdlesiastical
training,to be hurriedly ordainedand putin theplacesof many
ofthefriarpastors. Quitenaturally, most,thoughnotall, failed
to comeup to themark;and thearchbishop laterwas compelled
sadlyand reluctantly to admitthathe had madea mistake. He
and Andawerebothahead oftheirtimesin liberalmeasures, and
thearchbishop had triedto forcethetimes. Withoutdiscussing
at largethemeritsor demerits ofthenativepriesthood, it is cer-
tainthatthisover-hasty attempttoinstallitresultedin a reaction
whichenabledthe friarsto strengthen themselvesin controlof
theparishesforyearsto come.' The seminary fornativeclergy

1 The controversy in the Islands is in large measure a phase of the perennial

antithesisof regular and secular clergy throughoutthe Catholic world. The
claim of the.secularsis thatthe regularclergycan exercisethe functionsof parish
priestsonly temporarily, duringtime of necessity,as when the missionarywork
is still the most importantin a country, - in China, forinstance;and that,when a
countryhas been regularlyorganized into bishoprics,the Council of Trent re-
quires that then only secular clergyexercisethe functionsof the priesthood,ex
cept temporarily and by special dispensationof the Pope. A petitionto the Pope
of November,1Qoi, signedby many Filipinos,embodies an interesting exposition
of this position.

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668 POLITICAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY. [VOL. XVIII.

fellinto"innocuousdesuetude." Similarestablishments, placed

underthe Paulist Fathersin the past century, have marked
improvement in thisrespect;butthenativepriestsclaimthatthe
coursesof instruction, undercontrolof the friar-archbishops,
have purposely been limited. The revoltof I872 was, in its in-
ception,a protest ofthenativepriests, and theexecution ofthree
of themcausedit to spread.
It is duringthelast quarterof theeighteenth century,and at
intervalsduringthe nineteenth, thatwe notcmoreor less intel-
ligentand sustainedefforts on thepartof laymenin theIslands
to rouse the countryfromits industriallethargyand general
state of internalunprogressiveness. A case in pointwas the
organization at Manila in I78I, of the "EconomicSocietyof
Friendsof theCountry," composedof government officials,
mer-
chants,and ownersof estates. This was in the administration
of Governor-General Basco y Vargas,who was quite as ener-
geticas Anda and less military in methods. The societyhad a
spasmodicexistenceuntilI890, and a catalogueof the thingsit
triedto do is clear evidenceas to the previousbackwardstate
of agriculture and industry in general. It soughtto promote the
ofcotton(hardlyso widelygrownthenas at thetime
cultivation
of theConquest,and to-dayvirtually confined to twoprovinces),
of thecinnamon-tree (nativein Mindanao,foundthereby Ma-
gellan,butneverdeveloped),ofpepperand ofsilkworms; and to
improvedyestuffs and methodsof dyeing;it publishedthe first
periodicalof commerce;it becamepatronof the firstcoursein
agriculturein thefriarschoolsofManilain I82I, and established
a schoolof design;it introduced birdsfromChina to destroy
theravaginglocusts;it laboredforremovalof theexportduties
on rice,taughtimprovement of the breedof horses,and gave
theimpulseto thedevelopment whichmadeabacd(Manilahemp)
theleadingproductof someprovinces and islands.'
Its activities,
mostlyspasmodicto be sure,are cataloguedhere
as bearingon theclaimfrequently made thatthefriarsin their
parishesand the friar-estates did all, or even most,that was

I All thesethingsare accreditedto the societyby W. E. Retana, bibliographer,

a pronouncedfriar-eulogist.

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No.4.1 THE FRIARS IN THE PHILIPPINES. 669

everdoneto developthe Islands agriculturally. What theydid

at the starthas been referred to. Long beforei8oo, however,
a woefulstateof stagnation had beenreached,due in largepart,
it shouldbe said, to the restrictivecommercial measuresof the
homegovernment and its policyof monopolies.'This system,
whichEnglandhas at timesfollowed in theOrient,and Holland
stillfollowsto some extent,had its benefits, no doubt;but the
timehad passed forit in the PhilippinesbeforeSpain gaveit
up. It was a millstone abouttheneckofsuchprogressive move-
mentsas have just beennoted.
Nor can we givethefriarscreditforall agricultural improve-
mentbeforeI78I. Says Monteroy Vidal: "Agriculture was in
a relativelyprosperous stateat thetimeof theConquest. They
cultivated rice,sugar-cane, cocoanuts,potatoes,Chineseoranges,
indigo,etc." Irrigationwas not unknown,as witnessthe rice
terracesand neat irrigation trenches of the stillunchristianized
Igorrotes of Benguet,Luzon. Aboutall thecoffeegrownin the
Islands to-dayis grownin this Igorrotecountry.The great
coffee-plantationsof Batangasprovince, destroyed ten yearsago
to
by weevils,weredue the efforts of the Augustinian curateof
Lipa abouti8I 2. Cacao, however, was introduced fromMexico
to thePhilippines by Governor-General Diego Salcedo,I663-68,
and leadingTagalogsas wellas friarsand Spanishlaymenhelped
spreadits culture.2The nativesused twoindigenous speciesof
indigoforcoloringpurposesbeforetheConquest;theirdefective
methodsof extraction and application wereneverimproved until
the EconomicSocietytook it up two centuries later; and then,
though an Augustinian supervised theexperiments made,a Spanish
merchant financedthem. We have no definite knowledge as to
whetherit was civiliansor friarswho introduced maize, chili
peppersand tomatoesfromMexico. Sugar-canebecamea prod-
uct of importance underSpanish rule; the development of its
cultureand oftheprocessesofextraction is duechieflyto Spanish
and mestizo ownersof estates,particularly in Pampanga and

1 The government
monopolyof tobacco lasted until 1884.
2 So states Father Manuel Blanco, an Augustinian,the leading authorityon
Philippineflora.

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670 POLITICAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY. [VOL.XVIII.

Negros; but the finestplantationsin the Islands,withsteam-

mills,are wretchedly wastefuland archaiccomparedwiththose
of Hawaii.
The "modelfarms"werea comparatively recentgovernmental
innovation,dueto liberalministries at Madrid,and theywerenot
connected withthefriarestates,thoughthefriarseventually se-
curedcontrolof two of them. Despite optimisticreports, they
amountedpractically to nothing.
There was also an era of internalimprovements, beginning
underGovernors-General Enrileand Pefiaranda,as late as the
decade I830-40. Such roadsas the "King's Highway,"Dagu-
pan to Viganon thewestcoastof Luzon, werebuiltas a result
of thismovement.We mustgivedue creditto thefriarsof the
early yearsfor path-breaking in the wilderness;but the best
roads and bridgesto-dayare in such provincesas Pampanga,
wherethelandowners aremostly Spaniardsand mestizos;and the
Philippinesare,in the main, a country without roads.
Afterthe middleof the nineteenth centurythe friarcontro-
versycentered moreand moreabout the questionof education.
FriarcontrolofPhilippineeducationremainedvirtually complete
untilI863. We have notedthe firstapproach to a trade school,
in coursesinaugurated throughthe efforts of the EconomicSo-
ciety. A nauticalschool,orderedestablished by royalcedulain
I79I, throughthe influence of a sortof chamberof commerce
organizedin Anda'stime,was opposedby thefriarsand did not
open forthirty years;some claimthatthefriarsopposedit be-
cause highermathematics wouldbe introduced.
Meanwhile,variousprogressive and well-to-do Filipinos,dis-
satisfiedwiththeopportunities provided in theislands, had,even
beforethenineteenth century, begunsendingtheirsonsto Spain
and to Paris. There theycame intocontactwithmodemideas
in religion,
politics,economics, etc.,and to somedegreeperceived
the backwardness of theirown society.' Naturallythe-liberal
and democratic ideas thenspreadingin Spain- partofa move-
mentby no meansyetcompleted there- had theirreflection in

1 This movementof Filipinos Europeward was greatly stimulatedby the

openingof the Suez canal, witha resultantbettermentof communication.

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No. 4.] THE FRIARS IN THE PHILIPPIN1ES. 67I

the Philippines.Perhapsquite as naturally, the orderssaw in

all thisnewthought onlyatheismand Protestantism. One need
notimpugntheirsincerity to hold thattheissuewas joinedbe-
tweenmediavalism and modernism. It is Rizal's greatcharge
againstthefriarsin his novelsthattheysoughtto stemthiscur-
rentEuropeward and mark-ed forpersecution everyFilipinowho
stroveto getintotouchwithmodernscienceand modernprogress
in general.
In i8ii and againin I822 representation in theSpanishCort6s
was grantedto thePhilippines, and extensive reforms of internal
administrationwereprojected;butthesewerebuttemrporary con-
cessionsundershort-lived liberal r6gimesin Spain. The cam-
paignwhichwas to culminate in the insurrection of I896 really
beganwithliberalmeasuresof reform at Madridin I863. First
camea partialsecularization oftheprimary schools. The decree
providedfor the same courseof studyas in Spain, and is in
itselfa revelation of the defectsin the old Philippineprimary
education. The newsystemwas left,however, underthesuper-
vision of thefriars:the curateof each townwas to be local in-
spector, whichin practicecommonly resultedin reducing thelocal
school-boards, thenfirstcreated,to nonentities; thesuperior friar
officialofeach provincewas to be on theprovincial schoolboard;
and the Rectorof St. Thomas' University became,exceptfor
briefintervals, a sortof superintendent of publicinstruction for
theIslands. In mostpartsof thearchipelago theprovisions as
to school boards remainedvirtuallynull and void duringthe
seventies and eighties.The mostimportant provision of thelaw
of I863 was that establishing at Manila, underthe chargeof
the Jesuits,a normalschoolfortrainingnativeteachers. The
Jesuits, sincetheirreturnto the Islands in the nineteenth cen-
tury,have devotedthemselves solelyto educationand to strictly
missionary workamong the Morosand others,and theyhave
beenresponsible fortheintroduction ofmodernmethodsand for
muchof theeducationalprogresssinceI863. They are on this
accountviewedwithno littlejealousyby theDominicans.
Priorto I863, primary educationbeganand endedwithdaily
lessonson the catechismand otherbooksof religiousexercises,
and therewas usuallyverylittleelse in the middle. A primer

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672 POLITICAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY. [VOL.XVIII.

was ordinarilythe only text-book,strictlyspeaking. The non-

religiousinstructionin the schools was given by village natives,
who could read, write,and cipherto a limitedextent,but com-
monly knew little or no Spanish. They were paid whatever
slender pittance the friar-curate,who supervised or personally
conductedthe work withthe catechism,feltthat he could allow,
and ofteneked out a living in the fields. While this was the
systemas described by various contemporarywitnesses,condi-
tions were in fact much betterin many parishes,particularlyin
good-sizedtowns. The schools were just as good or just as poor
as the friar-curatemade them,since everything was leftto him.
AfterI863, and up to the Americanconquest,the catechismre-
mained the chief featureof daily work in the primary-school,
oftenrelegatingall else to an insignificantplace - much depend-
ing upon the preparation,at best a scanty one, of the teacher.
The badly printedand cheap littleI5o-page text-bookprescribed
by the governmentforthe schools (the same as is used in Spain)
was reader,writer,speller,arithmetic, geography,historyof Spain
and the world (Spain overshadowing),Spanish grammar(often
not taughtbecause the teacherknew littleof it), and handbook
of religiousand moral precepts(many pages). A glance at this
book will reveal how pitifullyinadequate was the ordinaryFili-
pino child's schoolingat the best; for oftennot even this text-
book was in use, no copies being on hand, or the teacherbeing
equipped only in the local dialect. Even those of the teachers
who had been trainedin the normalschools were scarcelyas well
equipped withknowledgeas an Americanchildat the sixthgrade.
These same teachers are now, in the new governmentnormal
schools,not only taughthow to teach the commonbranches,but
in manycases have firstto be taughtthe commonbranchesthem-
selves,particularlyarithmetic.
The municipal reformof I893, the "Maura law," in confer-
ringa considerabledegreeof local autonomyon Philippinetowns,
made the newlycreatedmunicipalcouncilsalso schoolboards. It
was a fartherstep in takingfromthe "padre" thepowerto " vis"
and superviseeverythingdone, small and great,in a town. In
promulgatingthe law, Governor-GeneralBlanco (popular with
the Filipinos forhis liberal measures) took pains to explain that

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No. 4.1 THE FRIARS IN THE PHILIPPINES. 673

powers,so faras religiousteaching

thepriest'sschool-inspecting
went,wereto be the same as ever. As a matterof fact,this
reformof MinisterMaura, sent forthamid muchaccompani-
mentofproclamas in Spainand theIslands,was virtuallymadea
undersucceeding
dead-letter governors.Its non-enforcement,ex-
ceptin a fewtowns,was one of thecomplaints of theinsurgents
in I 896.
The decreeof I863 providedthat,afterfifteen
years,the two
shouldbe held onlyby thosewho spoke,
principaltown-offices
read,and wroteSpanish,and thatafterthirtyyears,no one not
shouldbe exemptedfromforced
possessingthesequalifications
labor, i.e., be one of the "principalia." In proclaimingthe law
of I893, Governor-General Blancoinstructed themunicipalcoun-
cils to employ "the most practicalmeans for thediffusionof the
Spanishlanguage." The commonassertionthatthe friarsdid
teachthenativesSpanishis contradicted by theseprovisions and
by thenumerous royaldecreesfrom1585on; thosewhofrankly
admitthattheydid notspreadSpanish,and whoholdthatit is
impracticable to makethenativesaccepteitherSpanishor Eng-
lish,havea fairargument to present.
Even afterI863 thefriarswere,in thelongrun,usuallyable
practicallyto nullifydecreesaimedat secularization ofeducation.
The Islandswereremote, and the of
shifting administrations at
Madridinvariably broughtthemsooneror latera chancefora
hearingat court. The agricultural schoolswhichwere estab-
lished in i866 under govemmentcharge,with their"model
farms,"soon fellunderfriarsupervision; theirfailurehas been
referred to. A "polytechnic institute"was openedat Manila
witha flourish oftrumpets,as inauguratinga government system
of modemtradeschools;it was soonin thehandsof theAugus-
tiniansand virtually came to naught,insteadof leadingin a re-
vivalofthecrafts.
The friarsmaintained complete controlofsecondary and higher
instructiontilltheIslandswerelostto Spainin I898. A reaction
fromthe liberalpolicyof I863 to i868 was stimulatedby the
appearanceof a radical party in the Philippines, and by an
insurrectionary movementat Cavitein 1872. The friar-party
declaredtheseto be thenaturalconsequences of "reform,"and

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 674 POLITICAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY. [VOL. XVIII.

when the governmentchanged, as it soon did, the projects of

educationalreorganization werespeedilynullified.The seculari-
zationof St. Joseph'sCollege,whichhad cometo be adminis-
teredbytheDominicanssincetheJesuits'expulsionin 1768,and
of St.Thomas'University, endedin 1875withtheformalrevoca-
tionof decrees thathad been heldsuspended at Manila,and with
a strengthening of the Dominicans'controlof St. Joseph'sand
its $I,0Co,ooo or $S,5oo,ooo estate.' The Dominicanspromised
to devotetheincomeof thisendowment to coursesin medicine
and pharmacy, never before taught in the Islands. In a report
on the medical collegemade to the Americanauthorities last
year,a Germanphysician ofManilastatedthatit had no library
worthconsidering, that some text-books dated back to I845,
thatno femalecadaverhad ever been dissected and theanatomy
coursewas a farce,thatmostgraduatesneverhad attendedeven
one case of confinement or seen a laparotomy, and thatbacte-
riologyhad beenintroduced onlysinceAmericanoccupationand
was stilltaughtwithoutmicroscopes.
Priorto I863, thecurriculum of St. Thomas' University com-
prised,as the coursesleadingto theordinary bachelor'sdegree,
threein Latin grammar, threein philosophy and six in theology,
taughtin the scholasticmannerwiththe text-books of Spain's
friar-convents; underthefacultyof Canon Law, therewere,be-
sidestheforegoing, threecoursesin thecanonsand one in eccle-
siasticaldiscipline;thefaculty of CivilLaw (withlay professors)
included,besidesthe same Latin and philosophy, two yearsof
Roman Law, two of Civil Law in its variousbranches,one of
Spanishlegislation fortheIndies,and forensic practice. The re-
forming committee appointedby thegovernment in I863 ampli-
fiedthe scope of this"university" by addingto the curriculum
thefollowing subjects,someofwhich,however, werenevertaught:
mathematics, linealdrawing,chemistry, universalhistory, Span-
ish history,geography, Greek,Hebrew,French,English,and
bookkeeping.Shortlythereafter an Englishchemistwas hired
to coachthenew "professor of chemistry," a friarunacquainted
withhisbranch. WhentheJesuits beganto introduce something
This is the propertynow in litigationin the Philippine Supreme Court be-
tweenthe Philippinegovernmentand the metropolitansee of the Philippines.

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No. 4.] THE FRIARS IN THE PHILIPPINES. 675

like laboratoriesintotheirschoolat Manila, governmental and

popularpressureforcedmodernscienceupon St. Thomas'. In
i863 the Rectorof St. Thomas' offered to establish"a brief
medicalcourse,suitedtothelimitedintelligence of thenatives."'1
A shorttimebeforea predecessor had said: "Medicineand the
naturalsciencesare materialisticand impiousstudies." A Fili-
pino studentof the sixties,who proposeda thesison economic
reasoning,was gravelywarnedthat politicaleconomywas a
"scienceof the devil." And again,in I9OI, whenyoungFili-
pinosbegancomingto thetechnical schoolsoftheUnitedStates,
the Rectorof St. Thomas' announceda "courseof engineering
taughtby an Englishprofessor," - without laboratoryand with-
outmechanicalequipment.
Unquestionably therehavebeensomeable menconnected with
St. Thomas',menwhohavelaterservedtheircountry, theirorder,
or theirchurchwithdistinction in Europe. The majority of the
membersof the Dominican,Augustinian, Franciscan,and Re-
colletanordersin the Philippinesseem,fromtheirappearance,
manners,and personalhabits,to have been recruited fromcer-
tainlynot the best classesof Spain; but therehas alwaysbeen
a minority of veryintelligentand cultivatedmen,fromgood
familiesin Spain,whohave generally assumedtheleadershipin
all the activities
of thebrotherhood.Some of theseare charm-
ingmenpersonally, thoughwhollyintolerant ofmodernpolitical,
economic,social,or scientificthought.Their verydictatorship
amongless cultivated brotherscontributes to hardentheirintel-
lectualnarrowness and dogmatism.In the addressopeningSt.
Thomas' fora new yearin June,I9OI, a friar-professor, paying
his respectsto modernsciencein general,and to Englishand
Germananthropology and biologyin particular, wipedDarwin,
Haeckel,and othersuch menoffthe slate withquotationsfrom
theBible and thesaintsoftheChurch.
Concerning the capacityof the Filipinos,the viewcommonly
entertained by friarand pro-friar
writers is thatsuggested in the
following assertionmade by Mr. StephenBonsal in the North
American Revieuw forOctober,1902; "Not a singlepure-blooded
I See Montero y Vidal forthis and otherreferencesto this period, I863-I875

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676 POLITICAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY. [VOL.XVIIT.

Filipino of the thousands that have graduated[fromthe Manila

colleges]has distinguishedhimselfor lefta considerablename in
any walk of life.'" As has been shown,comparativelyfew pure-
blood natives have had the advantages of these schools. But
concedingthat any numberat all have had an opportunity to de-
velop what was in them,the statementquoted seems to point to
failureforthe new Americaneducationalcampaignin the Philip-
pines. Is thereanotherside?
Jose Rizal, the Filipino who was executedat the instigationof
the orders in I896, dealt with this question in a chapter of his
novel El Filibusterismo. Rizal was pure Tagalog, and got his
startin intellectuallifefroma nativepriestof Calamba, Laguna
province,Luzon. He had a taste of Manila teaching and then
went to Spain. Unlike other Filipinos,he soon sought educa-
tion outside of Latin sources in Europe, studyingat Heidelberg,
Leipsic, and elsewherein the eighties. Fresh fromcontactwith
the masters of scientificresearch by the "laboratory method"
in Germany,he writes thus of the teaching of physics in St.
Thomas' University:

The wallswereentirelybare; nota drawing,noran engraving, nor

even any kind of a representationof an instrumentof physics. On
occasiontherewouldbe loweredfromheavenan instrumentlet to be
shownfromafarto the class,liketheHoly of Holies to theprostrate
faithful:"Look at me, but don't touchme." From time to time,
whensomecomplacent professorcame,a day oftheyearwas assigned
forvisitingthemysterious "cabinet" and admiringfromafarthe en-
igmaticapparatus arrangedinside the cases. Then no one could
complain;that day therewere seen muchbrass, muchglass, many
tubes,disks,wheels,bells, etc. And the show stopped there,and
the Philippineswere not turnedupside down. For the rest, the
studentsare convincedthat theseinstruments were not boughtfor
them;merry foolswould the friarsbe! The "cabinet" was madeto
be shownto foreignersand to highofficials
fromSpain,that,on seeing
it,theymaynod in approbation, whiletheirguidesmilesas if saying:
"You have been thinkingyou were goingto finda lot of backward
monks,eh? Well, we are at the heightof the century;we have a
'cabinet'1"
And the foreigners and high officials,obsequiouslyentertained,
afterward wrotein theirvoyagesor reports:"The Royal and Pontifi-

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No. 4.] THE FRIARS IN THE PHILIPPINES. 677

cal University
of St. Thomas,of Manila, in chargeof the illustrious
Dominicans,possessesa magnificentcabinetof physicsfor the in-
structionof youth . . . There annually take this course some two
hundredand fifty students;but,be it throughthe apathy,indolence,
scantycapacityof thenatives,or through anyothercause whatsoever,
ethnologicalor unperceivable,up to date therehas not developeda
Lavoisier,a Secchi,or a Tyndall,even in miniature,fromthePhilip-
pine-Malayrace ! ! ! "

As mightbe expected,educational advantages for the weaker

sex in the Philippines have been of the slightest. Several re-
ligious sisterhoodswere early on 'the scene afterI565, and their
conventschools,witha limitedcurriculumof musicand grammar-
school studies,were always resortedto by the girls of the well-
to-do. The only other schools besides those of the villages, to
whiChtheirsex was ever admitted,were the governmentnormal
schools establishedin I863.
I have already referredto a change of sentimentin respectto
he natives after the "heroic age" of missionarywork reached
its height. We have seen how Father Herrera, in his plea to
Philip II, praised the docile nature of the Filipinos and their
fitnessfor Christianity. A centuryand a half later,in I73I, the
Augustinian,Tomis Ortiz, charges the natives with such gross-
ness and perverseimmorality as would entirelybelie his brethren's
claims to having Christianizedthem. Murillo Velarde, a Jesuit
historian,writingin I749 (in differentvein from his brother-
Jesuit,Father Delgado), calls the Filipino "the lowest grade of
rational animal," and catalogues twenty-onenative traits,each
a vice or fault. Such quotationsmightbe multipliedin the nine-
teenthcentury,especiallyafterI863. Typical are the remarksof
Gabriel Casanova, a prominentFranciscan, in a letterto ex-
ministerAMoretin I897, when the latter was proposingPhilip-
pine reformsin the Cortes. Referringto some versesrepresent-
ing the Filipino as a mere animal, which were recitedby a friar
in literaryexercisesat St. Thomas' University,Father Casanova
says:

They brilliantly
setforththe savageinstinctsand bestialinclinations
of these faithfulimitators of apes. . . . As neither Spain nor the

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678 POLITICAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY. [VOL. XVIII.

friarscan changetheethnological characterof therace,it willalways

be idle to desireto applyto themthesame laws as to us. . . . The
onlylibertythe Indians wantis the libertyof savages. Leave them
to theirfighting-cocks and theirindolence,and theywill thankyou
morethanifyou load themdownwithold and newrights.

The Dominican organ of Manila not infrequently to-dayrefers

to the people as "chongos" (Tagalog for "monkeys"). The
presentattitudeof the orders in the Islands is reflectedalso in
the commentsof Father Zamora (whose recentbook in defense
of the friarshas been referredto above) on Americanpolicy:

In the rebellionsof long ago, the authorities

did not offerrewards
or lucrativepoststo the leadersin orderto pacifythe country;they
killedthemin fightor on thegallows. To quietthemasses,and keep
them submissive,they employedthe friars.. . . Will the North
Americansever be convincedtheyare on the wrongtack? Those
same conspicuouspersonagesof the revolution will,whenleast it is
looked for,let theirsavage instinctsshow forthunderthe military
uniform, and at bestthebreech-clout willappearfromunderthetoga
of magistrateof thesupremecourt.

His contentionis that,if we "do not propose to exterminatethe

native stock," we should send the friarsback to theirparishes,
banish the revolutionaryleaders, and put a restraininghand on
the nativepriests. He insiststhat no otherorganizationis so in-
fluentialin the countryas the religiouscorporations;"the peace
of the countryis a question of life or death for them. All their
resourcesand interests,consistingin rural and urban property,
with the returnsfrom which they maintain their colleges and.
seminariesin Spain, are seriouslyinvolvedbecause of the revo-
lution."
The Philippines have an area of 75,000,000 acres, in round
numbers,includinglittleislands thatare mererocks,mountainous
country,dense jungles,etc. The mostliberal estimatewould not
class two-thirdsof this land as cultivable,in the most remote
future,and the land actuallyunder cultivationis about 6,ooo,ooo
acres.' The landed propertyof Augustini.ans,Dominicans,and
' Cavada, Statisticsof thePhilippines,I876, gives 2,280,42I hectares(5,700,000
acres) under cultivation,and approximately52,ooo,ooo acres as tropical forest.

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 No. 4.] THE FRIARS IN THE PHILIPPINES. 679

Recolletans
1 amountsto about 410,OOO acres. Thus the friars
hold overone-fifteenth
of the land thusfar redeemedforagri-
culture,
and aboutone one-hundredth ofall that,underthemost
optimistic
view,willeverbe cultivated.Most of theirland lies
in Cavite,Batangas,Laguna, Rizal, and Bulacan,the thickly
settledprovincesaroundManila, wherethe Malays had pro-
in government,
gressedfurthest agriculture,
and tradewhenLe-
gaspicame.
The valueoftheselandedestateshas beenestimated variously
at from$4,000,000 to $7,ooo,ooo; this is the propertynow under
negotiationat Manila. The friars'cityproperty is estimatedas
worthfrom$6,ooo,oooup. It includesthe large monasteries
and theirchurchesand the collegebuildingsin the walledpart
of Manila; collegesand monasteries in Cebu, loilo, Nueva Ca-
ceres,Dagupan,Vigan,and Tuguegarao;theDominicans'print-
ing establishment(includingthe dailypaperLibertas,whichhas
beenso abusiveofAmerican government, and theeditorofwhich
was last yearconvicted of criminally
libelingGeneralJ.Franklin
Bell); and the claimof the churchhierarchy and of the orders
to variouspubliccharitableor quasi-charitable such
institutions,
as theObrasPias,2Montede Piedad and Hospitalde San Juan
de Dios, withtheirendowments and possessions.The Domini-
cans,mostextensive holdersof urbanproperty, ownall one side
of a cityblockin themostcrowdedbusinesssectionof Manila,
and have twoof thethreebanksas tenants, whiletheyalso own
a majorityof stock in the Spanish-Filipino Bank, whichhas
steereda rathererraticand uncertaincourse. The lastbighemp
cornerattempted duringthe insurrection was financedby friar
money.
In additionto tithesof varioussortsand feesforweddings,
burials,etc.,3
thefriarsreceived,
as parishpriests,annualsalaries
fromthe Spanish government, rangingfrom$400 to $I,500.
1 The Franciscanscannot,by theirrules,hold landed estates.
2 In i88o the Obras Pias had at interest$2,50o,ooo Mexican silver,of which
the Franciscan order owned $5oo,840, the Dominican $205,092, the Recolletan
$15T,055,and the Miter $88,x55.
3 For which,as noted above, a schedule was fixedin 1773, thoughit was not
always regarded.

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68o POLITICAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY. [VOL. XVIII.

These werelatterlya chargeuponthe Philippinetreasury; once

themoneycame fromSpain or Mexico,and formedpartof the
westward cargoesoftheold "naos" whichmadeannualvoyages
betweenAcapulcoand ManilauntilI8I5. Then Manila was the
"Pearl of the Orient,"and fabuloustales are recordedof these
voyages. The post of "General-on-board" (a politicaljob) at
times netted$35o,ooo a voyage. Fortuneswere made out of the
allotments of space forthe returncargoesof spices,pearlsand
silks. The monasticcorporations had theirproportion of this
space to let,alongwiththegovernor-general and otherofficials.
The questionof morality amongthefriarsis notheretouched.
There has doubtlessbeen much exaggeration on this score.
Most important of all, however,the anti-friar
sentiment in the
Islands has quite generallybeen based on othergroundsthan
this. Whether or notthisattitudeis to be regardedas shedding
lighton themoralstatusin theIslandsto-day,mayherebe passed
over.
JAMES A. LERoY.
DURANGO, MEXICO.

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