Agrivoltaics

As the population continues to grow exponentially and demands for food and energy

increases, the earth is being depleted of its resources in an unsustainable manner. Many scientists

and professors argue that the exponential rise in population is the biggest issue we face in the

21st century. Research shows that the earth is not inhabited in a sustainable way, and will not be

capable of supporting the growing population for much longer. Thankfully people are beginning

to realize this issue and have dedicated entire fields of research to figuring out how to live on this

planet in a more sustainable manner. Great advancements in renewable technologies and

agricultural methods, such as agrivoltaics, will be the answer to a sustainable planet and future.

Agrivoltaics would not be the first agricultural system to integrate a form of energy output.

Agroforestry systems implement trees into agriculture. When designed appropriately, trees can

benefit the crop while also providing a source of energy. Wood is perhaps the oldest source of

biomass energy that has been used. The combustion of wood has been used for centuries to heat

homes in fireplaces or wood burning stoves and has also been used for preparing food. One

method to increase sustainability that researchers have developed is agrivoltaics. Due to the high

demands for food and energy; they figured, why not bring the two together in an integrated

system. When solar farms are constructed they use up a sizeable plot of land for the singular

purpose of electricity production. Agrivoltaics is integrating agricultural farms into solar farms,

thus increasing the productivity of the land. One issue with this method is that crops do not get

an ideal amount of sunlight since they are planted in between rows of solar panels. To aid in this

issue, shade resistant crops are commonly used to maximize output. Shade resistant crops are

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crops that are able to thrive in an environment that receives less sunlight. Other methods also

include incorporating mushroom farms under solar farms. Agrivoltaics should receive more

funding from the government and should be more frequently implemented into agricultural

practices.

So how do solar panels work? Photovoltaic cells, the technology used by solar panels,

convert sunlight into electricity. The idea of generating electricity from sunlight dates as far back

as 1839, when french physicist Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel discovered the photovoltaic effect.

He went on to do further experiments with photography. the work that Alexandre-Edmond

Becquerel did on the photovoltaic assisted in the discover of the photoelectric effect in 1887.

Heinrich Hertz is credited with discovering the photoelectric effect and proving that

electromagnetic waves exist. The photoelectric effect can be defined as the emission of electrons

from certain metals as light strikes it. Solar cells are able to produce electricity because of the

photoelectric effect. Solar cells essentially harness those excited electrons from the photoelectric

effect and are able to convert that energy into electricity. Generally, solar cells are made of two

layers of crystalline silicon since they have no free electrons, making them a good insulator. The

silicon is then doped to create a positive charge on one layer, and a negative charge on the other.

This potential difference in charge allows the cell to capture the excited electrons as solar

radiation hit the panel. Electrons then escape through the electrode in the form of electricity.

Unfortunately, average solar cells are only 10 to 15% efficient. This low efficiency is due to the

materials that solar cells are made of. They often can’t harness all the wavelengths of solar

radiation that is reaching them. Sometimes solar radiation is is not energetic enough for the

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photoelectric effect to occur, and sometimes solar radiation is too energetic for the photoelectric

effect to occur. This efficiency can be increased with higher quality materials that come at a

higher price point.

Now with an understanding of the technology behind solar energy, the constraints needed

to implement them into agriculture are important to analyze. To maximize yields and efficiency,

it must be decided what types of crops will do well in a shaded environment. There cannot be a

universal guide on what crops will work best in an agrivoltaic system since the crops that will do

well on any given farm will be highly dependent on the location. Location on the globe will

determine important variables for agriculture such as length of daylight and average temperature.

Most crops require 6 to 8 hours of sunlight a day, plants that do well in partially shaded

environments/environments that get less sunlight only need 3 to 4 hours of sunlight a day, and

certain crops that thrive in shaded environments only need about 2 hours of sunlight a day. Crops

that do well in shaded environments generally include lots of greens, roots, and herbs since they

require less energy. Fruiting vegetables such as tomatoes and peppers will not do as well since

they require more energy. Some varieties such as bush tomatoes can still produce in the shade.

Here is a compiled list of ideal crops to plant in the shade,

“Vegetables: Vegetables crops that will grow in light to partial shade are: arugula, beets,

broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, carrots, cauliflower, celery, chard, Chinese cabbage,

corn salad, endive, escarole, garlic, horseradish, kale, kohlrabi, leaf lettuce, leeks,

mustard, New Zealand spinach, parsnips, peas, potatoes, radishes, rutabagas, salsify

scallion, sorrel, spinach, turnips, and watercress.

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 Vegetables that will tolerate light to partial shade include: bush beans, summer squash,

and determinate or bush tomatoes adapted to cool regions or ready for harvest in 55 days

or so. These varieties often bear the names of cool summer regions such as San

Francisco, Oregon, New York, Russia, or Siberia, for example.

Herbs: Herbs that will grow in light to partial shade are: angelica, basil, catnip, chervil,

chives, costmary, garden cress, germander, horseradish, lemon balm, lovage, mint,

parsley, rosemary, sweet flag, sweet woodruff, and valerian.” (Albert)

Unfortunately, It might take them a bit longer to mature since the crops are not receiving the

maximum amount of sunlight. It is very important to consider what types of crops to grow in an

agrivoltaic system.

Another method of integrating crops into solar farms is with mushrooms. Instead of

struggling to disperse solar radiation amongst the solar cells and the crops, mushrooms can be

grown in the shade that all of the solar panels are providing. This is prevalent is rural areas of

Japan as struggling farmers hope to increase their income by selling electricity to a local utility

company and mushrooms in local markets. The mushrooms that they are growing are called

“wood ear.” Wood ear mushrooms are popular in Chinese cuisine and are easy to grow. It is

important that they choose an easy variety of mushroom to grow so they do not have to worry

too much about soil and cultivation. Leader of the sustainergy company in Tokyo Japan, Minami

Kikuchi, states that 20,000 kg (22 tons) of mushrooms can be produced from 5 acres of solar

panels. Additionally, that 5 acre plot of land would produce 2 megawatts of electricity. Younger

generations in Japan are becoming more inclined to move to the cities and urban areas to find

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work, this has led to much unused and abandoned farm land. It is estimated that upwards of 10%

of farmland in Japan is abandoned, these abandon farms would be ideal to implement these

solar/mushroom farms.

There are several different ways to approach the design of an agrivoltaic system. The

most common approach is with fixed solar panels but more complex approaches involve a

tracking system where the panels are constantly adjusted to maximize solar radiation reach the

solar cells, along with maximizing solar radiation reaching the crops. In the study “The Potential

of Agrivoltaic Systems,” Harshavardhan Dinesh and Joshua M. Pearce explore two different

solar array and crop configurations. Figure 1 displays a model where PV modules are mounted to

the ground while figure 2 displays a model where PV modules are mounted on stilts. Ground

mounted PV modules in figure 1 will allow the crops in between to receive more solar radiation,

but at a loss of unused land directly under the PV modules. PV modules mounted on stilts in

figure 2 allow for more land to be used by crops, but at the risk that they may receive less solar

radiation. Lettuce is grown in this experiment since it can handle shading up to 30%.

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 Figure 1.​ Agrivoltaic system with ground mounted PV modules. Adapted from

“The Potential of Agrivoltaic Systems,” by Harshavardhan Dinesh and Joshua M. Pearce.

2016, ​Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 5​ 4:299-308

Figure 2.​ Agrivoltaic system with PV modules mounted on stilts. Adapted from “The

Potential of Agrivoltaic Systems,” by Harshavardhan Dinesh and Joshua M. Pearce.

2016, ​Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 5​ 4:299-308

In the configuration displayed in figure 1, the solar panels are mounted 1 meter above

ground and spaced 6 meters apart. The dimensions of the solar arrays for each row in this setup

are 20m by 1m while the farmland in between is 20m by 5m. In the configuration displayed in

figure 2, the PV modules are mounted 4 meters above ground; two subcategories of this

configuration are also tested. The first has the rows of solar panels space 6.4 meters apart (half

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density) and the second has them spaced 3.2 meters apart (full density). The optimal tilt of the

panels was found to be 25​°​. The full density configuration generated the most kWh per square

meter at around 110 kWh. The ground mounted configuration came in second at about 60 kWh

and the half density came in last at 40 kWh. Even though the full density configuration generated

110 kWh, that is only about half of what a conventional PV farm would generate.

Growing Season Weight (g) % Reduction Yield (tons/HA)

Conditions (per head)

Full Sun Summer 561 N/A 50.49

Spring 312 N/A 28.08

Ground Summer 557 ~0 50.13

Mounted

Full Density Summer 325 42 29.28

Spring 246 21 22.18

Half Density Summer 456 19 40.90

Spring 309 1 27.80

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 Table 1​. Lettuce Yields. Adapted from “The Potential of Agrivoltaic Systems,” by

Harshavardhan Dinesh and Joshua M. Pearce. 2016, ​Renewable and Sustainable Energy

Reviews, 5​ 4:299-308

Table 1 displays the lettuce yields under the different configurations. The growing

conditions “Full Sun” is the control that did not have any PV system. It can be seen that the

ground mounted system had virtually the same crop yields as the control. As expected, the full

density system had the worst yields. Surprisingly, the half density system in the spring had very

little yield reduction when compared to the control.

There are drawbacks to agrivoltaic systems. Due to the constant work required through

cultivating the land in between rows of solar panels, lots of dirt and dust is stirred up and make

their way onto the solar panels. As dirt and dust collect on the solar panels, the amount of solar

radiation they receive is negatively affected. This requires constant cleaning of the solar panels

which could be an issue in a large scale operation. Maybe research could be done to construct an

automated system that cleans the solar panels. Dinesh and Pearce estimate that the half density

system (worst performing of the 3) could make $17,000 per Ha/year, the ground mounted system

could earn $30,000 pre Ha/year, and the full density system could earn just under $60,000 per

Ha/year. This is assuming that the price of electricity is at its cheapest at $0.05 pre kWh.

However, this price can vary to as much as $0.25 per kWh, this makes it difficult to accurately

estimate the value of these systems. In 2011 the average price for electricity was $0.125 per

kWh. So it should be safe to assume that this PV system would make more than the estimated

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value of Ha/year. It is also hard to estimate the cost of the PV system, cost can vary depending

on the PV industries in certain locations, loan structures, and possible incentives. In the U.S, 1

acre of solar might cost around $500,000. Clearly this is not pocket change. Over a ten year

period, the price of lettuce has averaged $2.23/kg, but has varied by 20%. If it is assumed that the

average price is $2.23/kg, then the full density system in the summer and spring would profit

$59,233/Ha and $44,870/Ha, respectively. The half density system in the summer and spring

would profit $82,741/Ha and $56,240/Ha. Clearly there are many variables to this and these are

very broad estimates. It is also important to note that the study being referenced only tested

lettuce so it is unknown what yields other crops may produce.

To conclude, the field of Agrivoltaics is in its infancy and it is clear that there is room for

much more research and future work. As of now, the cost of constructing a PV system on a farm

is too high and the risk to crop yields is too high, making it unlikely for the average farmer to

implement this system. In the future, agrivoltaics may be common practice as a solution to race

for land to be used energy production and used for food production. This will not happen until

more research is performed and ideal techniques are developed. The U.S might be able to also

employ techniques that the Japanese are in agrivoltaics. Implement mushroom practices in solar

farms are a great way to maximum output of the land in a simple and efficient way. The study

performed by Dinesh and Pearce gives great insight (aptly named ​The Potential of Agrivoltaics)​

into how efficient and profitable agrivoltaics could be, while also making it clear that more work

needs to be done before such a system is mainstream. Agrivoltaics is the future of farming, and

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more government subsidies should be granted into the field to give to opportunity for continued

research in what could potentially save the world.

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References

Dinesh, H.; Pearce, J. M. ​Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews​ ​2016​, ​54​, 299–308.

Movellan, J. Japan Next-Generation Farmers Cultivate Crops and Solar Energy.

https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2013/10/japan-next-generation-farmers-

cultivate-agriculture-and-solar-energy.html (accessed Dec 7, 2018).

Dupraz, C.; Marrou, H.; Talbot, G.; Dufour, L.; Nogier, A.; Ferard, Y. ​Renewable Energy​ ​2011​,

36​ (10), 2725–2732.

Semchenko, M.; Lepik, M.; Götzenberger, L.; Zobel, K. Positive effect of shade on plant growth:

amelioration of stress or active regulation of growth rate?

https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1365-2745.2011.01936.x

(accessed Dec 7, 2018)

Albert, S.; Williams; Barbara; Hopkins, S. Vegetables and Herbs for Growing in Shade.

https://harvesttotable.com/vegetables-for-growing-in-shade/ (accessed Dec 7, 2018).

Peters, A. These Solar Farms Have A Secret Hiding Under Them: Mushrooms.

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 https://www.fastcompany.com/40469425/these-solar-farms-have-a-secret-hiding-under-t

hem-mushrooms (accessed Dec 7, 2018).

Growing mushrooms under solar.

https://sciencetechnology.today/growing-mushrooms-under-solar/ (accessed Dec 7,

2018).

Beach, G. Japan's new mushroom solar farms produce sustainable energy and food.

https://inhabitat.com/japans-new-mushroom-solar-farms-produce-sustainable-energy-and

-food/ (accessed Dec 7, 2018).

Solar Farm Cost Per Acre. http://innovativesolarfarms.com/solar-farm-cost-per-acre/ (accessed

Dec 7, 2018).

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