The TOD Suitability Index: A Planning Framework for Transit-Oriented Developments

(TOD)

L. Archt. EnP. Angelo Paulo A. MOGUL, PALA, IFLA a

a
Master in Tropical Landscape Architecture, University of the Philippines –
Diliman, College of Architecture, Quezon City
a
E-mail: angelo.mogul@yahoo.com

Abstract: Cities are becoming more and more crowded, but they remain as the commercial
and business centers. Therefore, developers are continuing to create new urban developments
to cater for growing population of cities, however, they usually lack mixed-use opportunities
for new residents to work and do business, so constant travel to the main city center is needed.
The lack of proper access to public transportation to these areas increases the need for
automobile infrastructure to support its continued growth. A transit-oriented development
(TOD) integrates various land uses around transit areas for economic growth and pleasurable
travel experience, while protecting and conserving the environment. TODs for urban
developments will increase integrated green spaces, green infrastructure development, and
better connectivity between urban developments. The study elaborates on a tool (The
TOD-Suitability Index (TSI)) that empowers planners, decision makers, and designers that
integrate public transportation access, land-use planning and zoning, place-making, and green
infrastructure, therefore improving quality of life and human well-being, better use of the
public transportation system, improved streetscape, and public space conditions. Case studies
were done in three scales of transit-areas (neighborhood, city, and regional). The case study
areas have either a prominent residential area, commercial zone, or is a central business
district that have access to multiple modes of public transportation. The results of the case
studies showed that all areas failed because they scored low in Place Value and Market
Potential even though they had average to high Node Value scores. Recommendations
generated by the TSI provide basis for items that need to be developed to improve transit
areas which allows the project prioritization, budget allocation, and comprehensive
development plan integration.

Keywords: Transit-oriented developments, urban planning, public transportation, green space

integration

1. INTRODUCTION
Megacities of the world such as Beijing, Delhi, and Metro Manila continue to expand and
grow. Due to congestion, there is a tendency towards converting land-uses in urban and
suburban communities. With population growth, the city produces more pollution emissions,
solid wastes, and overcrowding sets in. In most megacities, the interconnection between its
suburban and urban-centers focuses on the use of motorized vehicles, a primary contributor of
atmospheric pollution. In the Philippines, Metro Manila’s inefficient public transportation
systems encourage people to buy their own vehicles to address the inconvenience of
commuting. With improved mobility, developments outside the main city core are easily
accessed by private vehicles, contributing to as the phenomenon called “urban sprawl”.

The current population growth of Metro Manila shows no sign of slowing down as shown in
statistics of in-migration towards the National Capital Region (NCR), Southern Tagalog
Region (CALABARZON (R-IVA)), and Central Luzon (R-III). One of the main reasons for
this is job opportunity. People migrate from other provinces to locate in Metro Manila or near
it (R-IVA and R-III). Since rent costs are higher inside the city, most immigrants live in
nearby provinces and travel daily to the city to work. This generates a great volume of daily
ridership that often leads to congestion in public transportation, as well as in a significant
increase in private vehicle usage. This results in daily heavy traffic that causes inefficiency for
business and discomfort and inconvenience to users. The continued in-migration also results
in the proliferation of informal settlements that provide low-cost lodging for the immigrant
working class.

According to a joint study by JICA and NEDA in 2014, if the traffic situation is not addressed,
2030 will be a traffic nightmare with most roads already at their maximum capacity.
Nevertheless, population will continue to grow even without proper amenities like public
open spaces, proper streetscapes, and connectivity. Public health decline will continue to be
an issue and disaster risk also increases because of the lack of emergency spaces available for
the city population. A proposed solution is to create growth centers in the nearby regions of
Metro Manila. These growth centers will become central hubs, generating jobs, promoting
local industry, and providing improved residential capacity. These hubs should be properly
connected to other hubs to enhance and ensure trade and movement of users and investors as
well as to provide better place-making and healthier spaces. Modernization of Metro Manila’s
transportation is also included in the solution, providing more mass transit options and better
public transportation experience.

2. RATIONALE
The needs of the highly urbanized areas, such as transportation, developable spaces, and
residential areas, will continue to increase because of the improving economy and
developments centered in the metropolitan areas. The expected expansion of the urban and
regional forms is very crucial in planning more sustainable and healthy cities, and their
networks. The current methods of urban and regional planning in the Philippines are more
focused on catering to vehicular accessibility over pedestrian use and effective open spaces.
These lack provisions and concern for integrating economic and physical development with
social, health and wellness needs of people, as well as cultural and ecological protection and
conservation within metropolitan areas. Major cities in the Philippines suffer from huge traffic
problems because of the residents’ improved capacity to own and use private cars. The
application of the transit-oriented development (TOD) concept to produce neighborhood
developments as well as transit hubs that will reduce the dependence on private transportation
and promote the usage of mass transit systems and active travel is proposed.

Transit-oriented development (TOD) is one of the tested approaches for mitigating urban
sprawls and reducing private vehicle dependency. TODs are moderate to high-density
developments located within an easy walk (distance might vary because of climactic
conditions) to major public transportation stops. These are mixed-used developments
designed for pedestrians and cyclists and discourage use of private vehicles. The main
motivational pull of TODs is possible increase in land values, improved economic activities and
affordable housing near transport hubs because of lesser travel costs and travel time to access
public transport. TODs allow the commuting population to relocate to areas away from
sources of employment but linked by reliable public transport. This will help decongest the
urban core of its working population. Locating rail stations and other public transportation hubs
near suburban communities and other housing developments will increase transit ridership and
moderate automobile travel by increasing regional accessibility to jobs and other economic
activities. High-quality walking and cycling environments with mixed land uses in the vicinity
of rail stations, through better and responsive urban designs, produce improved ridership
statistics.

Absence of transport station area master planning leads to developments where no design and
development standards are followed (overcrowded sidewalks and ill-designed stations). TODs,
in a larger regional plan, are nodes that integrate other areas around them. Applying the TOD
concept requires multiple factors to be assessed. In the World Bank Study by Salat and
Ollivier in 2014, three values - node, place, and market potential, are identified that can be
used in planning of TODs. This is called the 3V Approach where the different values provide
a basis for research, planning, and formulating recommendations.

3. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The review of related literature starts with how the TOD concept was first envisioned and
used. This is then related to the concept of transportation and planning which are two key
aspects in a TOD. Lastly, literature reviews of best practices and applications of a TOD that
can be used as basis for this thesis’ criteria and frameworks. An article by Harris and Ullman,
first published in 1945, discusses the various forms (concentric, sectoral, and multi-nuclei)
and evolutions that a city can undergo. These changes are influenced by various factors like
services, goods and industry of the area, mode and access to transportation, development and
possible expansion of the area, etc. This shows the need for planned development so that each
subsequent development is tied to the next. Furthermore, the article by Carlton in 2007
discusses history and pitfalls of the TOD concept. This literature is useful because criteria can
be derived from the mistakes (loss of community character, disjointed infill developments,
and fragmented mixed-use developments) of previous developments that made TODs fall
short of what was promised (better land values, improved quality of life, and increased user
traffic). This has led to the need of a standard to determine the success and failure of a TOD
and importance of a cohesive planning of initiatives in a TOD.

Transportation and connectedness is an essential part of planning a town or city as connection

between needed service, income generation sources, and residents/users, wherein a thesis
dissertation by Fyfield in 2003 found out that mode of transportation is one of the major
factors that affected the land use and development pattern of Portland. Relating to mode of
transportation, a study by Loo, Chen, and Chan in 2010 suggests that higher private car usage
may increase because of safety and convenience as compared to using public transportation
means like the bus. Variables affecting usage of TODs are land use, station characteristics,
socio-economic and demographic characteristics. Inter-modal cooperation (improved public
transportation link to train stations) policies should be taken into consideration to promote
transit ridership and reduce automobile dependency. According to Johansson, et. Al. in 2017,
this makes both, local transportation solutions like bike paths and pedestrianization
connections to transport stops and regional transportation policies are equally important to an
extent to users, developers, and investors. There is a common disjunct between the
synchronization and planning of the two transportation scales. However, it is shown in the
study the one cannot function properly with the other. A national railway, for example, cannot
serve its users well when the transport stops near user destinations is inaccessible, poorly
planned, and badly designed. The same situation also for a well-planned neighborhood TOD
which has no access or connection to a higher level of transportation. This is supported by
Olaru, Smith, and Taplin in 2011, where they show the importance of developments near
residential locations and the effect of the quality of these neighborhoods to the willingness of
planners to locate transit stations there.

Public transportation is described as road-invested (public bus) and transit-invested (train

systems). The complimenting the routes of both road-invested and transit-invested approaches
help in traffic decongestion. Policies, as written by Lee, et. Al. in 2010, can be made to
discourage private transportation by reducing the amount of parking spaces available for
commercial establishments that are easily accessible by public transportation. Therefore, as
the study by Fischer, Smith and Sykes in 2013 stipulates that the relationship between land
use and transport planning is a multi-sectoral endeavor. For effective planning and
implementation, there should be a clear and over-arching main goal that would encompass all
work to be done. This would help all participating stakeholders and consultants involved
become more cohesive in detailing and implementation of the masterplan. This means that the
main goal and its supplementary objectives should be established and comprehensible.
However, a study by Yao and Wang in 2014 discusses that there can be urban sprawl even
with good public transportation and a mass transit system like a bus/subway system. Beijing
is considered decentralized with residential zones. Higher income residents live in the
downtown area close to all city amenities and work options. Suburban housing is in the outer
regions of the city where they are serviced by streetcar and other public transportation means.
The suburbanization amplified with the operation of rail systems, then, the rise of automobiles
showed the need for road infrastructure. Most users do use public transportation, but they still
go and work in the central city area resulting in congestion of the main city area because of
the daily influx of people. The study indicates that it is not enough to provide better
transportation options for people living in the suburban areas to reduce urban sprawl and
automobile dependency. There must be new growth centers that will attract these residents to
work nearby the suburban areas rather than go to the central city area. These growth centers
should be able to provide job opportunities, socio-cultural and institutional amenities, and
public open spaces.

The design of TODs consider numerous factors and a study by Tumlin and Millard-Ball in
2003 focuses of the three-Ds (3Ds), density, design, diversity, of achieving a successful TOD.
Density deals with the concentration of users within the immediate vicinity of a transit station.
Diversity deals with the users being not only encompassing residential areas or households,
because it may also include work places, commercial areas, or institutional areas. Design
includes the design of urban block sizes, street patterns, parking areas, streetscape, greenways
and parkways, and other elements that would help add to the walkability of the whole
development. While Clagett’s study in 2014, the taking into consideration of mixed-income
households is necessary in the development of a true TOD. TODs must address the needs of
mixed-income households because the intended ridership does not only encompass a single
income class. The connections that TODs provide reduce the effect of displacement of
low-income populations and encourage a more transit-reliant approach to transportation rather
than a heavily car-dependent one. O’Hare’s study in 2017 discusses that TODs seek to
develop compact neighborhoods with housing, parks, shops, offices, jobs, and civic and
community facilities that are all accessible within a five-to-ten-minute direct walk to public
transport stops. The urban design component can be incorporated in making the walk a better
experience by promoting comfort and security. It also affects the permeability and the
connectivity of the pedestrian routes. These are all summarized in a way by the book written
by Salat and Ollivier in 2017, published by the World Bank, deals with many case studies and
researches on the benefits, effects, and proper planning of TODs. It primarily uses the 3V
Approach to determine the effectiveness or needs of a TOD. The 3V stands for three value
group which are the Node, Place, and Market Potential. The Node Value is mainly concerned
with the transportation and connectivity aspect of the TOD. The Place Value deals with the
spirit of the place and the effect of design on the users. Lastly, the Market Potential Value
considers the job, residential, and development potential of the area as a TOD. Case studies
also show the planning process of successful TODs and these can be used for benchmarking
the index that is being formulated for this study.

4. DESCRIPTION OF INDEX
The TOD Suitability Index (TSI) is a multi-criteria site analysis and assessment tool that
considers three main values (Node, Place, and Market Potential). Other elements and criteria
were also present, but they are already grouped together and merged to make the index more
concise. The criteria, however, is not final and can be manipulated by the user to add or remove
any applicable/inapplicable items. This allows the TSI to be reliable for standard usage and
flexible for more varied site conditions. The TSI summarizes the analysis and assessment of
TOD requirements into a user-friendly format for easier application of potential users. This
opens more TOD type of planning to decision-making bodies in the LGUs and planning
industry professionals. The Summary of Results and Recommendations is the final part of the
TSI wherein each value group is given an assessment and recommendation. It guides the user in
determining if the study area is suitable for a TOD. Given either result of pass or fail, the users
are able to derive recommendations for the area to make it more conducive for a TOD. This can
be used for both existing and future TODs study area and helps them in determining the priority
items for development. Furthermore, in-depth specific studies would be needed to proceed
further in the design process.

There were three study areas in terms of scale: Neigborhood scale, City scale, and Regional
scale. The boundary of each scale category are as follows: (1) Neighborhood – the entire
population of the neighborhood within the boundaries of the barangays that will be directly
affected by the possible main transit hub. Main transit hubs can be an area or a collector road
common to all barangays. (2) City – The 500-m radius around a current/possible major
transport hub with modes of city-to-city transport will be the boundary of the study area for this
scale. This covers the immediate area of the transport hub, including users’ origins and
destinations and modal transfer facilities. (3) Regional – The one-km radius around a
current/possible major transport hub with modes of transport servicing
inter-regional/provincial routes describes the boundary of the study area of this scale. This
considers the immediate area of the transport hub that includes users’ origins, destinations and
modal transfers. Also included are further adjacent areas serviced by the hub.

The process and description of using the TSI is shown in the TSI Tool Kit shown below. The
scale must first be determined. Then, a site inventory of the area must be done. A sample site
inventory list is found here also that can serve as a guide to future users. Then, using the TSI
Grading sheet which has various criteria for each value group. It is possible to determine if the
area passes (50% and above) or fails (below 50%). Either result would lead to possible
recommendations to make area more suited to be a TOD.
Image 1. TSI Tool Kit
Table 1. Sample TSI Grading Sheet
Each criterion is described further below:

Node Value:
 Time of walk from point of origin to transportation stop – this is graded with the
following parameters: 3pts (5-10 minutes’ walk), 1pt (11-15 minutes’ walk), 0pts (16
minutes or more).
 Length of walk from point of origin to transportation stop – this is graded with the
following parameters: 3pts (within 400m), 1pt (within 500m), 0pts (more than 500m).
 Number of transportation modes – quantity of different modes of transportations that
pass-thru and are usable by users. This is graded with the following parameters: 3pts (5
or more modes), 1pt (3-4 modes), 0pts (1-2 modes).
 Number of regular users (percentage of users, coming and going to the area, divided by
the population of the study area) – general description of the frequency of users in the
area, computed by totaling users coming and going to the area dividing it with the
population of the study area. This is graded with the following parameters: 3pts
(61percent or more), 1pt (31percent-60percent), 0pts (30percent and below).
 Walking distance to other modes of transportation – pedestrian connectivity and
accessibility to different transportation mode stops, and hubs. This is graded with the
following parameters: 3pts (within 400m), 1pt (within 500m), 0pts (more than 500m).
 Accessibility of area to PWDs/bikes/wheeled users – describes accessibility of all
modes of transportation present in the area. This would include PWDs, bikers,
passengers who are carrying wheeled luggage, and other related users. This is graded
with the following parameters: 3pts (very accessible), 1pt (moderately accessible), 0pts
(little to no accessibility).

Place Value:
 Types of amenities present in the study area (religious, health, educational, cultural,
institutional) – This is graded with the following parameters: 3pts (3 or more types
present), 1pt (2 types present), 0pts (1 type present).
 Types of land-uses present (residential, commercial, industrial, agricultural, parks,
institutional, forest, water) – This is graded with the following parameters: 3pts (3 or
more types present), 1pt (2 types present), 0pts (1 type present).
 Climate appropriateness of design – description of the climate affecting elements in the
study area, i.e. rain shelters, and trees. This can also include flood, landslide, earthquake
and storm surge mitigation designs in the area. This is graded with the following
parameters: 3pts (very evident), 1pt (evident), 0pts (not evident).
 Pedestrianization – description of the streetscape character and pedestrian infrastructure
of the study area. The more pedestrianized the area the higher the grade. This is graded
with the following parameters: 3pts (very evident), 1pt (evident), 0pts (not evident).
 Ecological importance – describes the presence of ecologically important items,
whether there are protected areas, biodiversity, etc. in the area. This includes any design
or interventions that seek to protect these special items. This is graded with the
following parameters: 3pts (with importance, with significant integrated design), 1pt
(with importance, with minor integrated design), 0pts (with importance, without
integrated design), and N/A (not applicable for the area because there is not ecological
importance in the area, this is no counted in the weighted average grade).
 Cultural character – describes the presence or absence of the unique cultural character
of the area. This considers the spirit-of-place of the study area. This is graded with the
 following parameters: 3pts (evident, with significant integrated design/provisions), 1pt
(evident, without integrated design/provisions), 0pts (not evident).
 Accessibility of usable open spaces (parks, plazas, etc.) – describes the proximity and
physical accessibility of usable open spaces from points of origin. This is graded with
the following parameters: 3pts (within 400m), 1pt (within 500m), 0pts (more than
500m).

Market Potential Value:

 Gross residential density – the total population of the study area divided by the total
square area of the study area. This is graded with the following parameters: 3pts (15-25
gross sqm per person), 1pt (25-35 gross sqm per person), 0pts (35 and above gross sqm
per person).
 Job density (jobs accessible within 30 minutes of travel time) – high job opportunity
areas that are available to the residents in the study area within a 30 minutes of travel
time. This is graded with the following parameters: 3pts (within three or more CBDs or
high job density areas), 1pt (within one-to-two CBDs or high job density areas), 0pts
(within none).
 Diversity of lots and block sizes – describes the size of lot cuts and land parcels, and
block sizes in the study area. This is graded with the following parameters: 3pts (high
block and lot size cut variation), 1pt (medium block and lot size cut variation), 0pts (low
block and lot size cut variation).
 Development floor-to-area ratios (FAR) – the general FAR in developments in the study
area. This is graded with the following parameters: 3pts (FAR maximized for at least
25percent of the study area), 1pt (FAR maximized for at least 10percent of the study
area), 0pts (FAR maximized for less than 10percent of the study area).

The detailed process in using the TSI is enumerated here:

 Select the study area to be tested with the TSI.
o Due to the flexibility of the tool, this can be used on any site, but if the user opts
to use this in an already potential TOD, it is recommended for the user of the tool
to determine the site by considering the following characteristics:
 Scale of TOD
 Multiple modes of transportation
 Presence of open spaces
 Potential residential and job opportunities
 Site inventory of the study area should be done with the aid of the Summary of Site
Inventory which enumerates the characteristics that need to be identified.
o The inventory items will be used as a reference for the usage of the TSI, where
various criteria are graded to determine a score for each value group.
 Grading Process
o Each criterion has a grade (3, 1, and 0) with corresponding description which
would serve as a guide to the user assessing the study area.

Computation of Weighted Average and Total Score: Each value group has a maximum
weighted average of 1. The value group totals are then averaged to solve for the final score.
If the final score is below 50 percent, then it has failed and would need major investments and
developments to improve and become more suitable to be a TOD. When the score is 50
percent and above, the study area is suitable to be a TOD and further improvement in score
will mean its effectivity as a TOD would also increase.
Table 2. Sample Table Summary of Results & Recommendations

Table 3. Summary of Site Inventory with Guide Questions

5. SAMPLE USAGE OF THE TSI
Method on how the case studies were done, site evaluation through landscape architectural
point of view and not yet through FGD. A current limitation of the study was time constraint
therefore establishment of a group to conduct the study together with the current evaluators.
Moreover, the study focuses on the establishment of the criteria for the TSI wherein the results
of the case studies are not the primary focus of the study. The study will only be up to the
formulation of the suitability index and its usage with the sample areas. The tool was made to
have an objective grading system while having subjective recommendations. This includes
biases in impressions in place-making wherein various users of the tool can evaluate the study
area and, compare and collaborate recommendations based on the biases provided.

Site selection was done by comparing characteristics of various locations under each TOD scale
category (neighborhood, city, and region). The site selection method in this study is not used in
other applications of the TSI because it is for TODs of varying scales. The site selection
methodology for testing TSI depends on the users’ objectives. The boundary of each scale
category are as follows: (1) Neighborhood – the entire population of the neighborhood within
the boundaries of the barangays that will be directly affected by the possible main transit hub.
Main transit hubs can be an area or a collector road common to all barangays. (2) City – The
500-m radius around a current/possible major transport hub with modes of city-to-city transport
will be the boundary of the study area for this scale. This covers the immediate area of the
transport hub, including users’ origins and destinations and modal transfer facilities. (3)
Regional – The one-km radius around a current/possible major transport hub with modes of
transport servicing inter-regional/provincial routes describes the boundary of the study area of
this scale. This considers the immediate area of the transport hub that includes users’ origins,
destinations and modal transfers. Also included are further adjacent areas serviced by the hub.

The TSI was tested in one of the major cities in Metro Manila to verify its effectivity. The
Quezon City sites were selected because these areas have been designated as growth areas by
the city’s CLUP 2011-2025.
 Figure 2. Quezon City Multi-Centered Growth Areas (Concept Map)

Maginhawa, teacher’s village study area is in the heart of the CBD-knowledge community
district wherein prominent universities, government buildings and residentials are located.
This presents an opportunity for the area to be a major transit station that will connect the
whole district and connect to other growth centers. Maginhawa St. is the main thoroughfare
where most forms of public and private transportation pass. It generates most traffic along the
area. The potential of this street (that has multiple nodes along it) or other prominent local
neighborhood streets or nodes to provide means of easier access of public transportation and
improvement of pedestrianization and reduce automobile dependency.
Table 4. TSI Usage for Maginhawa Study Area
 Table 5. Summary of Site Inventory – Maginhawa Study Area

Table 6. Summary of Results and Recommendations – Maginhawa Study Area

The SM North study area is in the periphery of the CBD-Knowledge Community district and
very near the Balintawak-Munoz Growth area which will be a prominent gateway to the
northern provinces such as Bulacan and the cities of Manila, Caloocan, Malabon, Navotas,
and Valenzuela. SM North shows the capacity of a commercial area to function as a node that
drives public transport. It already has various forms of public transportation that pass through
here. Moreover, there are several residentials areas and rising CBD in the Vertis North area.

Table 7. TSI Usage for SM North Study Area

 Table 8. Summary of Site Inventory – SM North Study Area

Table 9. Summary of Results and Recommendations – SM North Study Area

The Cubao study area is the primary focus area of the Cubao Growth District. There is a
known potential if the current area is redeveloped to be more attractive to visitors and users
because there are other commercial areas that people frequent more than this area. There are
multiple modes of transportation in the area that allow inter-regional connections.

Table 10. TSI Usage for Cubao Study Area

 Table 11. Summary of Site Inventory – Cubao Study Area

Table 12. Summary of Results and Recommendations – Cubao Study Area

The study areas represented three different TOD situations in terms of scale. Using the same
criteria and index for each study area, the user of the TSI was able to derive study
area-specific recommendations. With this in mind, city officials and planners from different
countries can apply this methodology to their own cities.

6. CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS

The TSI grading system and results pinpoint the values of low and high grades of a site as a
TOD. This allows the user to determine areas for improvement. This helps in goal setting
especially for multi-sectoral projects wherein it is very important to have a clear over-arching
goal and objectives as the development progresses. As shown in the different study areas, the
criteria are the same, yet site specific recommendations can be done. The TSI is a convenient
alternative planning tool across different planning scales with reliable criteria and grading
parameters that will help pinpoint the areas suitable for TODs or help improve existing TOD
areas.

Although the method in which these conducted its case study only dealt with expert opinion, it
is recommended that in future applications multiple stakeholders and technical working groups
should use the tool to generate varied biases on current situation and recommendations varying
on their fields of expertise or social interest.

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