Food Chemistry 113 (2009) 1041–1048

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Food Chemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem

The impact of dietary oil source and frozen storage on the physical, chemical
and sensorial quality of fillets from market-size red hybrid tilapia, Oreochromis sp.
Wing-Keong Ng a,*, Osan Maroof Bahurmiz a,b
a
Fish Nutrition Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden 11800, Penang, Malaysia
b
Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Marine Biology, Hadhramout University of Science and Technology, Mukalla, Yemen

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Red hybrid tilapia (Oreochromis sp.) were fed one of four diets containing either fish oil, crude palm oil,
Received 9 May 2008 palm fatty acid distillates or refined palm olein as the only added oil. Post-harvest fillet quality was then
Received in revised form 4 July 2008 evaluated at 1, 10 and 30 weeks of frozen storage. Dietary oil source did not significantly (p > 0.05) influ-
Accepted 21 August 2008
ence the liquid holding capacity and texture of fillets but both these parameters were increased by frozen
storage. Fillets from fish fed palm oil-based diets exhibited significantly higher oxidative stability during
frozen storage, compared to fish fed the fish oil diet. Dietary oil source and frozen storage had little
Keywords:
impact on sensory attributes. Unlike fillet proximate composition, fillet fatty acid composition was signif-
Tilapia
Fish oil
icantly affected by both diet and frozen storage. Total n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids decreased signifi-
Palm oil cantly in the fillet lipids of all fish after 30 weeks of frozen storage.
Fillet quality Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Sensory evaluation

1. Introduction replacement in aquafeed is the resultant modification of the fish fil-

The intensive farming of tilapia, Oreochromis sp. is rapidly
expanding and tilapias are the second most widely farmed fish in
the world with annual production exceeding 2 million metric tons
in 2005 (FAO, 2008). Marine fish oil, a by-product of industrial cap-
ture fisheries, is the oil conventionally used in commercial tilapia
feeds. Aquafeeds currently use about 87% of the global supply of
fish oil (FO) as a source of lipid (Tacon, Hasan, & Subasinghe,
2006). For the past 25 years, annual FO production has not in-
creased beyond 1.5 million tons per annum and estimates showed
that the demand for FO from the aquaculture industry is likely to
surpass total global supply by the year 2010 (New & Wijkstrom,
2002). The decreasing global availability and increasingly high cost
of FO has resulted in intensive research activities to evaluate alter-
native oil sources in fish diets.
One such oil is palm oil, which has been used in the diets of
farmed fish such as catfish (Ng, Lim, & Boey, 2003; Ng, Wang, Ketchi-
menin, & Yuen, 2004), Atlantic salmon (Ng, Tocher, & Bell, 2007;
Rosenlund, Obach, Sandberg, Standal, & Tveit, 2001; Tortensen,
Lie, & Froyland, 2000), rainbow trout (Fonseca-Madrigal, Karalazos,
Campbell, Bell, & Tocher, 2005) and tilapia (Bahurmiz & Ng, 2007).
Palm oil has been shown to be able to substitute a significant
amount of dietary FO without compromising fish growth and feed
utilisation efficiency. Nevertheless, a major consequence of FO
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +604 6533888x4005; fax: +604 6565125.
E-mail address: wkng@usm.my (W.-K. Ng).
let fatty acid composition and the use of palm oil is no exception
(Bahurmiz & Ng, 2007; Ng et al., 2004). Apart from good growth,
the post-harvest quality of farmed fish is an important aspect that
should be taken into consideration when evaluating the suitability
of vegetable oils as dietary FO alternatives. The impact on the phys-
ical and organoleptic quality of fillets from tilapia fed diets where
the fish oil is replaced with palm oil is currently not known.
Available data on the effect of dietary oil source on some of the
principal characteristics of the final eating quality of farmed fish,
such as taste, texture and storage stability, are often contradictory.
Replacement of fish oil with various vegetable oils in fish diets
have been shown to affect fillet texture (Regost, Jakobsen, &
Rørå, 2004), liquid holding capacity (Regost et al., 2004) and sen-
sory attributes (Izquierdo et al., 2005; Thomassen & Rosjo, 1989;
Waagbø, Sandnes, Torrissen, Sandvin, & Lie, 1993). In contrast, no
effects on fillet texture (Rørå, Regost, & Lampe, 2003; Izquierdo
et al., 2005; Menoyo et al., 2004), liquid holding capacity (Rørå
et al., 2003) and sensory attributes (Guillou, Soucy, Khalil, & Adam-
bounou, 1995; Turchini et al., 2003) were observed in fillets of var-
ious fish fed diets with fish oil replaced with various vegetable oils.
The polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) present at high content
in the meat of farmed fish fed FO-based diets are highly susceptible
to lipid oxidation and can negatively impact changes in colour, tex-
ture, odour, flavour and nutritional quality of fish products (Me-
noyo, Lopez-Bote, Bautista, & Obach, 2002). The impact of this
phenomenon on quality deterioration is most common during fro-
zen storage and is considered one of the major causes of frozen

0308-8146/$ - see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.08.060
1042 W.-K. Ng, O.M. Bahurmiz / Food Chemistry 113 (2009) 1041–1048

shelf-life reduction of seafood products (Santos-Yap, 1996). Apart
from having very low levels of PUFA, the presence of natural anti-
oxidants such as vitamin E (Wang, Yuen, & Ng, 2006) and carote-
noids (in the case of crude palm oil) can give palm oil an
advantage over FO and other vegetable oils in minimising the neg-
ative impact of lipid oxidation on flesh quality by enhancing oxida-
tive stability, thus improving the shelf life of fish fillets, especially
during long-term frozen storage. In a previous study, we confirmed
the feasibility of feeding tilapia with palm-oil based diets with
100% substitution of added dietary FO throughout the grow-out cy-
cle until marketable size (Bahurmiz & Ng, 2007). In the present
study, the resultant fillets will be used to determine the impact
of diet on post-harvest fillet quality, in terms of various physical,
chemical and sensorial attributes during frozen storage.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Diets and feeding trial
Four isonitrogenous (30% crude protein) and isoenergetic
(16.50 kJ/g) practical diets were formulated with the same ingredi-
ent composition, except for the added oil source. Fish meal and
soybean meal contributed equal amounts of dietary protein in all
experimental diets. Diets were supplemented with 8% oil from
either fish oil (FO), crude palm oil (CPO), palm fatty acid distillate
(PFAD) or refined, bleached, deodorised palm olein (RBDPO), in
addition to 3.2% coming from residual oil found in fish meal
(2.3%) and soybean meal (0.9%). The ingredient, proximate and
fatty acid composition of the diets has been previously published
in Bahurmiz and Ng (2007). Briefly, the fatty acid composition of
the three palm oil-based diets was similar with high levels of
16:0 (33.2–38.9%), 18:1 n-9 (32.6–35.0%) and 18:2 n-6 (11.5–
13.3%). These three fatty acids accounted for more than 80% of
the total fatty acids detected in the CPO, PFAD and RBDPO diets.
The FO diet had high levels of monoenes (40.2%) and PUFA
(31.7%) with n-3 PUFA contributing 23.4% to the total fatty acid
composition. Among all the experimental diets, the highest levels
of EPA (5.5%) and DHA (12.0%) were found in the FO diet.
At the start of the feeding trial, groups of 30 red hybrid tilapia
(Oreochromis sp.) of 31.24 ± 0.05 g mean body weight were ran-
domly selected and stocked into 12 round fibreglass tanks
(1.12 m3). Each of the four experimental diets was manually fed
to randomly assigned triplicate groups of fish twice a day to appar-
ent satiation for 20 weeks, upon which the fish reached marketable
size. Details about the experimental design and fish husbandry
could be obtained from Bahurmiz and Ng (2007). Results showed
that the source of added oil did not significantly influence
(p > 0.05) growth performance, feed utilisation efficiency, survival,
body indices or production yield of tilapia (Bahurmiz & Ng, 2007).
2.2. Fish sampling procedure
At the end of the feeding trial, 15 fish from each tank were indi-
vidually sampled, killed, skinned and filleted. A total of 30 fish fil-
lets were individually wrapped in polyethylene film, placed on
polypropylene trays, sealed in plastic bags and stored at 20 °C.
Post-harvest fillet quality was evaluated in terms of various phys-
ical (% thawing drip and instrumental texture analysis), chemical
proximate composition, fatty acid profile and thiobarbituric acid
reactive substances (TBARS) and sensorial analyses at 1, 10 and
30 weeks of frozen storage. Proximate and fatty acid composition
of the fish fillets were determined as previously described in
Bahurmiz and Ng (2007). The number of fish fillets used for each
of these analyses is as indicated in the footnotes of Tables 1–5.
2.3. Determination of post-thaw drip
Post-thaw drip of fillet samples was analysed according to Ba-
ker (1997). Frozen fillet samples (about 10 g), taken from the ante-
rior part of fillets located between the dorsal fin and the lateral
line, were accurately weighed and placed on absorbent tissue pa-
per enclosed in a sealed plastic bag. A sheet of plastic net was
placed between the sample and the tissue paper to avoid any past-
ing of samples to the tissue paper. Samples were allowed to thaw
in a refrigerator at 6 °C for either 48 h or 96 h. After each thawing
period, fillet samples were reweighed, and the percentage post-
thaw drip was calculated as
 
frozen sample weight thawed sample weight
100  :
frozen sample weight
2.4. Texture measurements
Fillet texture was evaluated mechanically using a Texture Ana-
lyzer TA–XT2 (Stable Micro Systems, Godalming, Surrey) equipped
with the data analysis software Texture Expert for Windows (ver-
sion 1.00). Fillets were thawed overnight in the refrigerator at 6 °C
before analysis using a single compression based test, as described

Table 1
% Post-thaw drip of fillets from red hybrid tilapia fed diets containing fish oil or palm oil at 1, 10 or 30 weeks of frozen storage
Dieta Frozen storage (weeks)
1 10 30
Thawing time (h) Thawing time (h) Thawing time (h)
48 96 48 96 48 96
b a,b
FO 5.25 ± 0.29 6.83 ± 0.25 5.59 ± 0.69 7.35 ± 0.59 5.81 ± 0.56 8.19 ± 0.61a
CPO 5.29 ± 0.72 6.88 ± 0.69 5.33 ± 0.64 7.49 ± 0.59 6.48 ± 0.54 8.35 ± 0.49
PFAD 5.17 ± 0.65 6.48 ± 0.65 5.22 ± 0.95 7.23 ± 0.93 5.40 ± 0.81 7.65 ± 0.65
RBDPO 5.23 ± 0.49 6.90 ± 0.41b 5.10 ± 0.61 7.52 ± 0.66a,b 6.21 ± 0.85 8.41 ± 0.69a
ANOVA
F-value Significanceb F-value Significance
48 h 96 h
Diet 0.146 NS 0.212 NS
Storage time 1.303 NS 4.703 *
Interaction 0.238 NS 0.100 NS

Values were reported as means ± SE of triplicate groups of 3 fish fillets at each time period. Mean values in rows with different superscripts were significantly different
(p < 0.05).
a
FO, fish oil; CPO, crude palm oil; PFAD, palm fatty acid distillate; RBDPO, refined, bleached, deodorized palm olein.
b
* significant (p < 0.05); NS, not significant.
 W.-K. Ng, O.M. Bahurmiz / Food Chemistry 113 (2009) 1041–1048 1043

Table 2
Hardness (g) and TBARS (mg/100 g lipid) of fillets from red hybrid tilapia fed diets containing fish oil or palm oil at 1, 10 or 30 weeks of frozen storage
Dieta Frozen storage (weeks)
1 10 30 1 10 30
Hardness TBARS
FO 540.3 ± 22.3b 552.0 ± 23.6b 1127.4 ± 51.8a 13.00 ± 0.92Ab 16.29 ± 0.41Ab 119.59 ± 10.5Aa
CPO 540.5 ± 18.2b 544.9 ± 23.0b 1187.4 ± 47.8a 5.95 ± 1.82Bb 8.66 ± 1.17Bb 18.00 ± 1.12Aa
PFAD 513.9 ± 14.3b 528.4 ± 21.3b 1124.0 ± 53.7a 6.58 ± 1.61Bb 8.19 ± 2.95Bb 18.30 ± 3.09Ba
RBDPO 539.8 ± 21.2b 552.4 ± 21.9b 1159.6 ± 50.1a 6.93 ± 0.78Bb 9.39 ± 1.93Bb 21.28 ± 1.59Ba
ANOVA
F-value Significanceb F-value Significance
Diet 0.62 NS 90.65 *
Storage time 430.078 * 135.36 *
Interaction 0.206 NS 60.28 *
Values were reported as means ± SE of triplicate groups of three fish fillets. For each parameter, mean values in rows with different superscripts (a,b)were significantly
different (p < 0.05). Mean values in the same column with different superscripts (A,B) were significantly different (p < 0.05).
a,b
See footnote of Table 1.

Table 3
Average sensory scores (0–15) of fillets from red hybrid tilapia fed diets containing fish oil or palm oil at 1, 10 or 30 weeks of frozen storage

Attribute/dieta Frozen storage (weeks)

1 10 30
FO CPO PFAD RBDPO FO CPO PFAD RBDPO FO CPO PFAD RBDPO
Off-odour 5.37 4.94 4.56 4.53 5.70 7.16 5.55 5.21 7.64 7.83 5.13 5.07
±0.54 ±0.81 ±0.83 ±0.89 ±1.01 ±0.98 ±0.92 ±0.98 ±0.93 ±1.37 ±0.77 ±1.23
Whiteness 10.16 8.84 10.82 10.17 9.87 9.03 10.40 9.26 9.89 6.93 10.23 9.99
±0.63 ±1.08 ±1.47 ±1.52 ±1.32 ±1.01 ±1.61 ±1.25 ±1.07 ±1.32 ±1.02 ±1.43
Chewiness 4.07 5.22 3.20 3.80 5.85 5.01 5.49 4.35 5.19 5.84 5.19 4.37
±0.68 ±1.04 ±1.04 ±1.19 ±1.11 ±0.66 ±0.87 ±1.16 ±0.54 ±1.14 ±1.16 ±1.32
Juiciness 9.50 9.90A 11.12 10.38 8.96 9.05A 10.26 10.46 8.36 6.27B 9.59 9.65
±1.23 ±1.04 ±1.40 ±0.95 ±0.78 ±0.80 ±0.62 ±1.07 ±1.14 ±0.78 ±1.02 ±1.08
Hardness 5.13ab 6.62a 3.89b 5.42ab 5.55 6.24 5.61 5.61 6.30 6.87 6.24 6.24
±0.72 ±0.96 ±0.80 ±0.56 ±1.11 ±1.10 ±0.83 ±0.92 ±0.99 ±0.90 ±1.01 ±0.96
Sweetness 9.60 8.43 10.98 9.78 7.40 7.02 9.39 8.66 8.45 8.04 8.97 8.51
±1.26 ±1.29 ±1.26 ±1.11 ±1.10 ±0.54 ±1.49 ±1.29 ±0.96 ±1.14 ±1.01 ±1.02
Sourness 4.22 4.77 3.02 4.79 6.05 5.10 3.66 5.15 6.27 5.97 4.23 5.19
±0.80 ±0.75 ±0.69 ±0.75 ±1.19 ±0.60 ±0.77 ±1.08 ±0.80 ±1.14 ±0.26 ±1.10
Rancidity 5.52 4.65 3.39 3.77 6.66a 6.51ab 3.60b 4.67ab 7.41a 7.17a 3.86b 5.90ab
±1.43 ±0.95 ±0.89 ±0.96 ±1.35 ±0.89 ±0.53 ±0.90 ±1.04 ±1.29 ±0.63 ±0.86

Values were reported as means ± SE of triplicate groups of two fish fillets. Different superscripts (a,b) in the same row within the same storage time indicate significant
differences (p < 0.05) in the attribute scores between dietary treatments. Different superscripts (A,B) in the same row for the same diet indicate significant differences
(p < 0.05) in the attribute scores during frozen storage.
a
See footnote of Table 1.

by Jonsson, Sigurgisladottir, Hafsteinsson and Kristbergsson
(2001), with minor modifications. Measurements were made at
the centre of equal cuboid fillet samples (sized 2  2  1 cm,
length  width  thickness). A ball-shaped probe with a diameter
of 12.5 mm was selected to simulate the human finger. The probe
was driven down to penetrate the sample at a constant speed of
1 mm/s until it passed 50% of the sample depth. The compression
force (g) required to penetrate the probe down to 50% of fillet
thickness was recorded in the force versus time curve, and the
hardness was determined by the height of the peak.
2.5. Determination of TBARS concentrations
Malondialdehyde (MDA), which is a secondary oxidation
product during the breakdown of PUFA, was used as an index com-
pound for studying lipid peroxidation. The oxidative susceptibility
of fish fillets was evaluated by determined equivalents of MDA,
using the TBARS test according to the procedure outlined in Baker
and Davies (1996), at ‘time 0’ of the incubation stage, to reflect
the basal TBARS concentration in the fillets. The colour intensity
of the MDA–TBA adduct was measured spectrophotometrically at
535 nm, and the MDA concentration of the sample was calculated
from a calibration curve using MDA standards. MDA concentra-
tions were expressed as mg MDA/100 g fillet lipid.
2.6. Sensory evaluation
Tilapia fillets were evaluated for their sensory qualities using a
quantitative descriptive analysis method performed on a 15 cm
non-structured horizontal line using terms describing the two ex-
tremes of the attribute being assessed and anchored at the oppo-
site ends of this line. Organoleptic tests were conducted at a
specially constructed sensory evaluation laboratory of the Fisheries
Research Institute (Penang, Malaysia) with a taste panel consisting
of six well-trained assessors.
At each evaluation, portions of approximately 2–3 cm were cut
out from the anterior and posterior part of each fillet, respectively.
The sample was then wrapped in aluminum foil, labeled with a
random three-digit number, and allowed to thaw overnight in a
refrigerator at 6 °C. The wrapped slices were steamed for 9 min just
before serving. Off-odour was rated from 0 (no off-odour) to 15
(extremely off-odour). Fillet colour was assessed in term of white-
ness, and rated from 0 (extremely yellow) to 15 (extremely white).
Texture was assessed by attributes such as chewiness, juiciness
1044 W.-K. Ng, O.M. Bahurmiz / Food Chemistry 113 (2009) 1041–1048

Table 4
Proximate composition (% wet weight) of fillets from red hybrid tilapia fed diets containing fish oil or palm oil at 1, 10 or 30 weeks of frozen storage
Dieta Frozen storage (weeks)
1 10 30
Moisture Protein Lipid Ash Moisture Protein Lipid Ash Moisture Protein Lipid Ash
FO 79.51 17.90 1.74a 1.12B 79.67 17.25 1.69 1.12B 79.60 18.08 1.67a 1.22A
±0.18 ±0.18 ±0.02 ±0.01 ±0.06 ±0.17 ±0.03 ±0.01 ±0.18 ±0.16 ±0.10 ±0.01

CPO 80.54 16.90 1.71a 1.06 79.44 17.66 1.74 1.16 79.54 18.19 1.64ab 1.18
±1.03 ±1.25 ±0.23 ±0.07 ±0.35 ±0.24 ±0.09 ±0.04 ±0.34 ±0.20 ±0.16 ±0.03

PFAD 79.95 17.69 1.33b 1.12 79.82 17.46 1.37 1.11 79.89 18.10 1.31b 1.15
±0.07 ±0.08 ±0.13 ±0.02 ±0.09 ±0.07 ±0.14 ±0.01 ±0.11 ±0.26 ±0.08 ±0.01

RBDPO 79.64 17.62 1.70a 1.14 79.5 17.49 1.59 1.16 79.7 17.87 1.59ab 1.16
±0.09 ±0.03 ±0.10 ±0.01 ±0.11 ±0.07 ±0.16 ±0.04 ±0.10 ±0.06 ±0.03 ±0.02
ANOVA
Moisture Protein Lipid Ash
Diet F-value 0.637 0.118 7.418 0.828
Significanceb NS NS * NS

Storage time F-value 0.891 2.822 0.409 6.540

Significance NS NS NS *

Interaction F-value 1.051 0.717 0.124 1.456

Significance NS NS NS NS

Values were reported as means ± SE of triplicate groups of three fish fillets. Mean values in the same column with different superscripts (a,b) were significantly different
(p < 0.05). Mean values in the same row with different superscripts (A,B) were significantly different (p < 0.05).
a,b
See footnote of Table 1.

Table 5
The fatty acid composition (% of total fatty acids) of fillets from red hybrid tilapia fed diets containing fish oil or palm oil at 1, 10 or 30 weeks of frozen storage

Fatty acid/Dieta Frozen storage (weeks) SEM

1 10 30
FO CPO PFAD RBDPO FO CPO PFAD RBDPO FO CPO PFAD RBDPO
C14:0 2.2 1.3 1.2 1.2 2.7 1.6 1.3 1.5 2.8 1.7 1.3 1.6 0.2
C16:0 18.2 24.1 25.6 24.3 17.8 23.9 25.1 25.8 18.5 24.2 26.6 25.7 0.9
C16:1 n-7 5.6 4.6 4.3 4.3 5.4 4.5 3.7 4.0 5.4 4.3 4.1 3.9 0.2
C18:0 4.5 6.8 6.4 6.8 4.4 5.3 5.8 5.3 4.8 5.5 5.5 5.4 0.2
C18:1 n-9 15.7 30.8 29.4 30.3 16.6 33.1 30.2 31.3 16.3 31.9 29.8 32.5 2.0
C18:1 n-7 3.4 NDb ND ND 3.4 ND ND ND 3.5 ND ND ND 0.0
C18:2 n-6 5.4 7.7 7.3 7.3 5.6 8.6 9.2 8.9 5.7 9.4 9.3 9.3 0.4
C18:3 n-6 0.4 0.7 0.9 0.8 0.3 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.1
C18:3 n-3 0.9 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.9 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.9 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.1
C18:4 n-3 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0
C20:1 n-9 4.9 1.6 1.6 1.5 5.5 1.7 1.6 1.6 5.4 1.7 1.6 1.6 0.5
C20:3 n-6 0.3 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.3 0.7 0.8 0.6 0.3 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.1
C20:4 n-6 1.2 1.9 2.0 2.0 0.9 1.8 2.1 1.6 1.0 1.9 1.8 1.5 0.1
C20:3 n-3 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0
C20:4 n-3 0.6 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.6 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.6 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
C20:5 n-3 1.7 0.4 0.7 0.5 1.6 0.4 0.5 0.5 1.6 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.2
C22:1 n-11 3.4 0.6 0.6 0.6 3.7 0.7 0.6 0.6 3.6 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.4
C22:5 n-6 0.6 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.0
C22:5 n-3 4.5 1.3 1.3 1.3 4.3 1.3 1.4 1.3 4.2 1.7 1.7 1.3 0.4
C22:6 n-3 17.2 9.5 9.5 10.4 15.7 8.1 9.4 8.8 15.0 7.4 8.1 7.8 1.0
Total saturates 24.9 32.2 33.3 32.3 25.0 30.9 32.3 32.8 26.1 31.5 33.5 32.8 0.9
Total monoenes 33.0 37.5 35.9 36.7 34.7 39.9 36.0 37.5 34.1 38.5 36.0 38.6 0.6
Total PUFAc 33.3 23.8 24.0 24.6 31.1 22.6 25.3 23.3 30.6 22.8 23.6 22.3 1.1
Total n-3 PUFA 25.4 11.8 12.3 12.8 23.6 10.4 12.0 11.2 22.9 10.0 10.9 10.0 1.7
Total n-6 PUFA 7.9 12.0 11.8 11.8 7.5 12.2 13.3 12.2 7.7 12.8 12.6 12.3 0.6
n-3: n-6 3.2 1.0 1.0 1.1 3.2 0.9 0.9 0.9 3.0 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.3

Values were reported as means of triplicate groups of three fish fillets. Some minor fatty acids are not shown.
a
See footnote of Table 1.
b
ND = not detectable.
c
PUFA = polyunsaturated fatty acids.

and hardness. Chewiness was rated from 0 (extremely tender) to
15 (extremely rubbery). Juiciness was rated from 0 (extremely
dry) to 15 (extremely moist) and hardness was rated from 0 (extre-
mely soft) to 15 (extremely hard). Basic tastes (sweet and sour) and
aftertaste rancidity (the degree of residual rancidity in the mouth
when the sample has been swallowed) were also evaluated and
rated from 0 (no intensity of the attribute) to 15 (extreme inten-
sity). These attributes were selected to reflect possible sensorial
changes in the tilapia fillets which could be easily detected by
the panellists.
 W.-K. Ng, O.M. Bahurmiz / Food Chemistry 113 (2009) 1041–1048
2.7. Statistical analysis
Two-way analysis of variance was performed on data to analyse
the effects of experimental diets, frozen storage time and their
interaction. Differences between means were determined by Dun-
can’s Multiple Range test and were considered to be significant
when p-values were <0.05. All statistical analysis was performed
using SPSS 11.5 for Windows (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL).
3. Results
3.1. Liquid-holding capacity, texture and oxidative stability
Percent drip loss of fillets after 48 h or 96 h thawing periods was
not significantly affected (p > 0.05) by dietary oil source, irrespec-
tive of frozen storage time (Table 1). Amount of drip loss of sam-
ples thawed for 48 h or 96 h generally increased as the frozen
storage time increased. However, only the fillets of fish fed the
FO or RBDPO diet showed significantly higher (p < 0.05) % post-
thaw drip loss after 96 h over the 30-weeks frozen storage period
(Table 1). No effects of the interaction between diet and storage
time were observed.
For texture, no significant difference was observed in the resis-
tance force of fillets from tilapia fed diets with FO or various palm
oils (Table 2). Hardness values were almost the same for all samples,
with the fillets from fish fed the PFAD diet having the lowest hard-
ness. Fillet hardness was significantly affected by frozen storage
time with values at week 30 almost twice as high as fillets analysed
at week 1 or week 10, irrespective of dietary treatment. No signifi-
cant interaction was found between diet and frozen storage time.
TBARS values of fillets were significantly influenced by both die-
tary oil source and frozen storage (Table 3). TBARS values of fillets
of fish fed palm oil-based diets were much lower than in fillets of
fish fed the FO diet. The lowest TBARS value was reported in fillets
from fish fed the CPO diet. MDA levels of the 30-weeks frozen fil-
lets were significantly higher compared with those sampled at
week 1 or week 10. A nine-fold increase in TBARS (from 13 mg to
120 mg MDA/100 g lipid) was observed in the fillets of fish fed
the FO diet after 30 weeks of frozen storage, compared to a
three-fold increase in fillets of fish previously fed palm oil-based
diets (Table 3). There was a significant interactive effect between
diet and frozen storage on the oxidative stability of fish fillets.
3.2. Organoleptic quality
At the start of frozen storage (week 1), of the eight sensory attri-
butes evaluated, only the hardness scores differed significantly
among the fillets of fish fed diets with various oils (Table 4). Fillets
from fish fed the PFAD diet were perceived as significantly softer
than fillets from fish fed the CPO diet. The sensory scores obtained
were consistent with fillet texture results determined instrumen-
tally as described in the previous section. The highest off-odour
score was reported in fillet of fish fed the FO diet, while fish fed
the RBDPO diet achieved the lowest score. The intensity of white
colour was found to be lowest in fillets from tilapia fed the CPO
diet and the highest in fish fed the PFAD diet. For chewiness and
juiciness, the best scores were observed in fillets of tilapia fed
the PFAD diet. Meat from tilapia fed the PFAD diet tasted sweeter,
less sour and less rancid compared with meat from fish fed the
other diets. Aftertaste rancidity score was highest in fillets of tila-
pia fed the FO diet.
Over the 30-weeks frozen storage period, analysis of scores gi-
ven by taste assessors did not indicate significant effects of dietary
treatment or storage time on the sensory attributes of tilapia fillets,
except for aftertaste rancidity and juiciness, respectively (Table 4).
1045
The aftertaste rancidity scores of frozen fillets were significantly
influenced by dietary oil but not by frozen storage. Nevertheless,
regardless of dietary treatment, rancidity scores tended to increase
with increasing storage time. For fillet juiciness, there was a signif-
icant decrease in juiciness scores with increasing storage time, for
fish fed the CPO diet, and this decrease was also observed in all fil-
let groups. Hardness scores of frozen fish tended to increase over
the period of storage, but did not differ significantly. Other non-sig-
nificant changes included off-odour, chewiness and sourness
scores (a tendency to increase with storage), and scores of fillet
whiteness and sweetness (a tendency to decrease with storage).
3.3. Proximate and fatty acid composition
Moisture and protein content of fish fillets were not signifi-
cantly affected by diet and storage time (Table 4). Fillet from fish
fed the PFAD diet generally showed lower lipid content compared
to fillets from fish fed the other dietary oils. Lipid content of fish
fillets was not affected by frozen storage and there were no inter-
action between dietary treatment and storage time. Frozen storage
exerted a small but significant effect on the ash content of fillets
from fish fed the FO diet.
In general, the fatty acid composition of the dietary oil source
dictated the fillet fatty acid composition (Table 5). The fillet lipids
from fish fed any of the three palm oil-based diets had similar fatty
acid profile, which did not differ significantly. The significant im-
pact of dietary oil on fillet fatty acid composition was due mainly
to the differences observed between the fillets of fish fed the FO
diet and the fillets of fish fed the palm oil-based diets (Table 6). To-
tal saturated fatty acids content determined in the fillets of red hy-
brid tilapia ranged from 24.9 to 33.3%, with palmitic acid (16:0)
being the dominant fatty acid (Table 5). Total monounsaturated
fatty acids in the fillet lipids of all fish ranged from 33.0 to 37.5%.
Oleic acid (18:1 n-9) in the fillet lipids of fish fed the palm oil-
based diets was significantly higher compared to that found in fish
fed the FO diet but the reverse was true for longer chain monoenes
such as 20:1 n-9 and 22:1 n-11. Significantly higher concentrations
of total n-6 PUFA were deposited in the fillet lipids of fish fed palm
oil-based diets compared to fish fed with the FO diet. Fillets of fish
fed the FO diet had significantly higher concentrations of eicosa-
pentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), compared
to fish fed palm oil-based diets. Fillet n-3/n-6 ratio was highest in
tilapia fed the FO diet at 3.22 and was about 1.0 in fillets of fish fed
palm oil-based diets.
Frozen storage significantly affected the fatty acid composition
of tilapia fillets (Tables 5 and 6). Total n-3 PUFA decreased signifi-
cantly in the fillet lipids of all fish after 30 weeks of frozen storage,
irrespective of the dietary history of the fish. The main decrease in
fillet lipid n-3 fatty acids was observed in the DHA content which
decreased from 17.2%, 9.5%, 9.5% and 10.4% after one week of frozen
storage to 15.0%, 7.4%, 8.1% and 7.8% after 30 weeks of frozen storage
in fillets of fish fed the FO, CPO, PFAD or RBDPO diets, respectively. In
contrast, linoleic acid (18:2 n-6) increased slightly (ranging from 0.3
to 2.1%) but significantly after 30 weeks of frozen storage. The rela-
tive decrease in n-3 PUFA and increase in n-6 PUFA content of fillet
lipids after long term frozen storage significantly impacted the n-3/
n-6 content of fish fillets (Tables 5 and 6). An interactive effect of
diet and frozen storage was observed for only a few fatty acids, such
as 18:0, 18:2 n-6, 20:1 n-9 and 22:5 n-3 (Table 6).
4. Discussion
Results from the present study indicated that the fillet quality of
red hybrid tilapia in terms of liquid-holding capacity, texture and
sensory attributes were generally not significantly affected by die-
1046 W.-K. Ng, O.M. Bahurmiz / Food Chemistry 113 (2009) 1041–1048

Table 6
Effect of diet, frozen storage time and their interaction on tilapia fillet fatty acids as analysed by two-way ANOVAa

Fatty acid Diet Storage time Interaction

F-value Significance F-value Significance F-value Significance
C14:0 79.023 * 13.422 * 0.739 NS
C16:0 149.043 * 2.195 NS 1.193 NS
C16:1 n-7 25.761 * 3.776 NS 3.816 *
C18:0 20.354 * 16.245 * 3.072 *
C18:1 n-9 346.738 * 3.798 * 0.75 NS
C18:1 n-7 1846.925 * 0.015 NS 0.015 NS
C18:2 n-6 92.004 * 34.455 * 3.091 *
C18:3 n-6 4.42 * 23.263 * 1.706 NS
C18:3 n-3 116.137 * 0.964 NS 0.142 NS
C18:4 n-3 514.687 * 8.239 * 2.225 NS
C20:1 n-9 2891.912 * 14.837 * 7.675 *
C20:3 n-6 80.682 * 14.083 * 1.25 NS
C20:4 n-6 31.38 * 2.727 NS 1.349 NS
C20:3 n-3 22.709 * 0.308 NS 0.587 NS
C20:4 n-3 1016.016 * 6.886 * 2.42 NS
C20:5 n-3 155.715 * 0.746 NS 0.271 NS
C22:1 n-11 933.566 * 2.048 NS 0.726 NS
C22:5 n-6 8.712 * 15.664 * 0.893 NS
C22:5 n-3 904.511 * 3.349 * 4.323 *
C22:6 n-3 138.317 * 15.801 * 0.506 NS
Total saturates 123.339 * 1.738 NS 0.822 NS
Total monoenes 20.339 * 2.9 NS 0.693 NS
Total PUFA 86.293 * 3.197 NS 1.413 NS
Total n-3 PUFA 349.385 * 12.53 * 0.508 NS
Total n-6 PUFA 180.425 * 3.282 NS 2.121 NS
n-3: n-6 1170.545 * 16.204 * 0.422 NS
a
* significant (p < 0.05); NS, not significant.

tary oil source. On the other hand, feeding tilapia with diets sup-
plemented with either fish oil or palm oils greatly impacted the
oxidative stability, lipid content and fatty acid composition of fish
fillets.
The liquid-holding capacity is an important characteristic to
determine fish fillet quality, since water is essential for maintain-
ing good texture properties. Published reports on the effects of die-
tary oil on the liquid-holding capacity and texture of fish are
limited, and the results are often contradictory. Regost et al.
(2004) reported significant differences in liquid-holding capacity
in fillets of Atlantic salmon fed different dietary oils. Contradictory
results were earlier reported on the same species by Rørå et al.
(2003), reporting that liquid-holding capacity was not influenced
by the dietary oil source, which is in agreement with the results
of the present study. Rosenlund et al. (2001) reported no signifi-
cant effects on fillet texture when CPO was used to replace 50%
of added fish oil in diets for Atlantic salmon. The present study
showed that up to 100% of added dietary fish oil can be replaced
with palm oil, with no impact on the fillet texture of tilapia. The
lack of impact of dietary oils on fillet texture has also been reported
for Atlantic salmon by Rørå et al. (2003) and for gilthead sea bream
by Menoyo et al. (2004). In contrast, other studies with salmonids
have reported that texture properties were significantly affected by
dietary oil source (Andersen, Thomassen, & Rørå, 1997; Regost
et al., 2004). These contrasting results reflect the current limited
understanding of the effects of FO replacement on the fillet physi-
cal characteristics of farmed fish.
The organoleptic evaluation of farmed fish fed with FO or vege-
table oils have been extensively researched but the results are of-
ten contradictory. While significant differences in several sensory
attributes have been reported in fillets of Atlantic salmon fed diets
with vegetable oils (Thomassen & Rosjo, 1989; Waagbø et al.,
1993), replacing dietary FO with different alternative oils did not
cause any significant differences in the final sensory quality of
Atlantic salmon (Hardy, Scott, & Harrell, 1987), brook char (Guillou
et al., 1995) or brown trout (Turchini et al., 2003). The present
study is the first published report on the effects of replacing dietary
FO with various palm oils on the sensory characteristics of tilapia.
Our results showed that the use of palm oil-based diets for red hy-
brid tilapia did not significantly affect sensory qualities of fillets in
terms of odour, colour, chewiness, juiciness, sweetness, sourness
and rancidity. The hardness attribute did show a significant differ-
ence between fish fed the CPO and PFAD diets but this difference
disappeared after several weeks of frozen storage. Such differences
in fillet hardness have also been reported in brook charr (Guillou
et al., 1995) and gilthead sea bream (Izquierdo et al., 2005).
Various marine lipids, such as fish oil, are rich in n-3 highly
unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA) that are highly susceptible to oxi-
dation. In the present study, a direct relationship was observed be-
tween lipid oxidation and the levels of n-3 PUFA deposited in
tilapia fillet. TBARS correlated strongly with fillet total n-3 PUFA
levels (r = 0.908) and a strong positive correlation was also ob-
served between TBARS and individual n-3 HUFA; 22:6 n-3
(r = 0.890), 22:5 n-3 (r = 0.920) and 20:5 n-3 (r = 0.886). The low
concentrations of n-3 PUFA present in palm oils used in this study
contributed to the enhanced oxidative stability of fillets of tilapia
fed these diets as compared to the fillets of fish fed the FO diet.
CPO and PFAD contain higher concentrations of endogenous vita-
min E compared to process RBDPO which might have caused lower
(not significant) TBARS values. Vitamin E concentrations were not
analysed in the fish fillets in the present study but we have previ-
ously shown that both tocopherols and tocotrienols from dietary
palm oil can be deposited in fish fillets, thereby enhancing oxida-
tive stability (Ng et al., 2004; Wang et al., 2006). Several studies
have also reported on the positive effects of the inclusion of vege-
table oils on improving the oxidative stability of fish tissues.
Replacement of dietary FO with various vegetable oils in the diets
for Atlantic salmon (Regost et al., 2004) and gilthead sea bream
(Menoyo et al., 2004) resulted in significantly lower TBARS values
in the fish fillet.
It is generally known that fish fillet fatty acid profile reflects
dietary fatty acid profile. Such a relationship had also been deter-
 W.-K. Ng, O.M. Bahurmiz / Food Chemistry 113 (2009) 1041–1048
mined for palm oil-based diets when fed to salmonids (Fonseca-
Madrigal et al., 2005; Ng et al., 2007; Tortensen et al., 2000) and
other fish species (Bahurmiz & Ng, 2007; Ng et al., 2004). A detailed
discussion of the effects of dietary oils on fillet proximate and fatty
acid composition has been given previously in Bahurmiz and Ng
(2007).
In the present study, frozen storage was shown to have a ten-
dency to increase the drip loss of tilapia fillets, similar to the find-
ings reported by Mørkøre, Hansen, Unander and Einen (2002), for
rainbow trout fillets. Furthermore, an extended frozen storage per-
iod markedly increased the compression force measuring the hard-
ness of tilapia fillets. By the end of the 30-weeks frozen storage, the
rate of increase exceeded 100% in comparison with recently frozen
fillets, irrespective of diet. A strong positive correlation (r = 0.95)
between frozen storage time and increasing fillet hardness was ob-
served. Similarly, a significant increase in the fillet hardness of fro-
zen cod and haddock stored at 10 °C and 30 °C was observed by
Badii and Howell (2002). They reported that the hardness in-
creased by up to three and four times for both cod and haddock,
respectively, when the time of frozen storage was extended from
18 to 30 weeks. Both liquid-holding capacity and textural changes
in frozen fish muscle are associated with changes in muscle pro-
teins during storage, including protein denaturation (Badii & Ho-
well, 2002). As a result, loss of water-holding capacity and
increasing hardness are common indications of these changes in
frozen fish. As observed in the present study, the post-thaw drip
showed a good correlation with fillet hardness (r = 0.81–0.86), con-
sistent with the findings of Jonsson et al. (2001).
In general, frozen storage did not significantly affect the sensory
attributes evaluated in the present study. With the possible excep-
tion of fillet juiciness, the decrease in scores of the positive attri-
butes such as whiteness and sweetness was not significant.
Nevertheless, it was interesting to note that the fillets of fish fed
the CPO diet were given the lowest score on whiteness, especially
after 30 weeks of frozen storage. Similarly, the effect of frozen stor-
age on increasing the scores of the negative attributes such as off-
odour, chewiness, hardness and sourness was not significant for all
dietary treatments. However, prolonged frozen storage did allow
taste assessors to better differentiate significant changes in rancid-
ity between fillets from fish fed different dietary oils and the scores
given were always higher for fillets from fish fed the FO diet. The
oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids is considered one of the major
causes associated with deterioration of texture and flavour during
frozen storage of fish products (Porter, Kennish, & Kramer, 1992;
Waagbø, Sandnes, Torrissen, Sandvin, & Lie, 1993). The low PUFA
content of fillets from fish fed palm oil-based diets coupled with
the low lipid content of tilapia fillets (1.31–1.74%, wet weight)
probably accounted for the general lack of effects that frozen stor-
age had on fillet sensory quality in the present study.
TBARS values of fillet lipids increased during frozen storage,
irrespective of dietary treatment, in the present study. However,
this increase in TBARS was most pronounced at the end of 30
weeks and more evident in the frozen fillet from fish fed the FO
diet. Similarly, Stéphan, Guillaume, and Lamour (1995) reported
that after 6 months of frozen storage ( 20 °C), TBARS content of
tissue from turbot fed diets supplemented with cod liver oil or pea-
nut oil increased in comparison with that for initial samples, with
higher values observed in tissues from fish fed the fish oil diet. Re-
gost et al. (2004) found that the TBARS values of Atlantic salmon
fillets showed a significant increase when subjected to a four-
month frozen storage and the values were highest for fish fed fish
oil diets and lowest for those fed the soybean oil diet.
Moisture, lipid and protein content of tilapia fillets were not sig-
nificantly affected by frozen storage in the present study. Regost
et al. (2004) reported similar findings in a four-month frozen stor-
age study on fillets from Atlantic salmon fed various dietary oil
1047
sources. As for the fatty acid composition over 30 weeks of frozen
storage in the present study, the most pronounced change was the
significant drop in concentrations of total n-3 PUFA, particularly
DHA (22:6 n-3), irrespective of dietary treatment. Percent of total
PUFA also decreased but not as significant as for the n-3 class. In
contrast, Regost et al. (2004) reported that the fatty acid profile
of raw fillets of Atlantic salmon fed different dietary oils was not
significantly (p > 0.05) affected after four months of frozen storage
at 20 °C. The fillet fatty acid composition data at the end of the
frozen storage period were not shown (Regost et al., 2004). It
should be noted that in the present study, the relative fatty acid
concentrations in all the fish fillets analysed varied by no more
than 3% during the 30-weeks frozen storage period, even though
some of these changes were statistically significant. The frozen
storage time in the present study was almost double that used
by Regost et al. (2004) in their study on Atlantic salmon fillets. Por-
ter et al. (1992) reported that total n-3 PUFA decreased from 34.7%
to 30.2% in the light flesh of sockeye salmon after being kept in fro-
zen storage for 1 year.
In conclusion, the physical and sensory quality of fillet from
tilapia fed diets with 100% substitution of FO with palm oil were
generally not affected by this change of dietary oil source. Further-
more, fillets of fish fed palm oil-based diets showed greater oxida-
tive stability during frozen storage, which should prolong the
shelf-life of these products. The results from the present study pro-
vide additional support to our earlier growth trial (Bahurmiz and
Ng, 2007), confirming the feasibility of using palm oil in the diets
of tilapia throughout their grow-out cycle until marketable size.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the Malaysian Ministry of Science,
Technology and Innovation (MOSTI) for the research grants that
was provided for this study. The second author was financially sup-
ported by the Hadhramout University of Science and Technology
(Yemen). We also wish to thank Dr. Noryati Ismail (USM) and the
Fisheries Research Institute (Penang) for their assistance in the
sensory evaluation.
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