Introduction to Nonlinear Optics

Robert W. Boyd
University of Ottawa
University of Rochester
University of Glasgow

P resented at the International School of Physics “Enrico Fermi,”

Course 190 - Frontiers in Modern Optics, 30 June - 5 July, 2014.
 Outline of Presentation

Part I. Tutorial Introduction to Nonlinear Optics

Part II. Recent Research in Quantum Nonlinear Optics

 Why Study Nonlinear Optics?

It is good fundamental physics.

It leads to important applications.

It is a lot of fun.

Demonstrate these features with examples in remainder

of talk.
1. What is Nonlinear Optics?
 Nonlinear Optics and Light-by-Light Scattering

The elementary process of light-by-light scattering has never

been observed in vacuum, but is readily observed using the
nonlinear response of material systems.
Nonlinear material is fluorescein-doped boric acid glass (FBAG)
n2 14 n2(silica) [But very slow response!]

M. A. Kramer, W. R. Tompkin, and R. W. Boyd, Phys. Rev. A, 34, 2026, 1986.

W. R. Tompkin, M. S. Malcuit, and R. W. Boyd, Applied Optics 29, 3921, 1990.
Opomjofbs!Pqujdt
UIJSE!FEJUJPO

Spcfsu!X/!Cpze
Some Fundamental Nonlinear Optical Processes: I

Second-Harmonic Generation

(2) 2
2

Dolgaleva, Lepeshkin,
and Boyd
Some Fundamental Nonlinear Optical Processes: II

Sum-Frequency Generation

1 2
3
= 1
+ 2
(2)
2 3

1
Some Fundamental Nonlinear Optical Processes: III

Difference-Frequency Generation
amplified!
1 =
3 1 2 2
(2)
1
2

Optical Parametric Oscillation

Parametric Downconversion: A Source of Entangled Photons

The signal and idler photons are entangled in:

(a) polarization
(b) time and energy
(c) position and transverse momentum
(d) angular position and orbital angular momentum
Entanglement is important for:
(a) Fundamental tests of QM (e.g., nonlocality)
(a) Quantum technologies (e.g., secure communications)
Some Fundamental Nonlinear Optical Processes: III

Third-Harmonic Generation

(3) 3
3
Some Fundamental Nonlinear Optical Processes: IV
Intensity-Dependent Index of Refraction
i
E( ) (3)
E( ) e NL

self-phase modulation

cross-phase modulation E( ) (strong wave)

(3) i NL
E( ' ) E( ' ) e
(probe wave)

where
 Role of Material Symmetry in Nonlinear Optics
(2) vanishes identically for a material
possessing a center of inversion sym-
metry (a centrosymmetric medium).
non-centrosymmetric medium
U(x)

parabola
parabola
actual
potential

centrosymmetric medium
U(x)

parabola parabola

actual
potential

x
2. Coupled Wave Equations and Harmonic
Generation
 Treatment of Second-Harmonic Generation – I
z
E1, ω (2) E2, 2 ω
χ

L
Let
Ẽ1(z, t) = E1(z)e i!t + c.c. = A1ei(k1z !t) + c.c. (1)
Ẽ2(z, t) = E2(z)e i2!t + c.c. = A2(z)ei(k2z 2!t) + c.c. (2)
where k1 = n1!/c and k2 = n22!/c.
We have assumed that the pump wave E1 at frequency ! is unde-
pleted by the nonlinear interaction. We take A2 to be a function of z
to allow the second harmonic wave to grow with z. We also set
P̃2(t) = P2 e i2!t where P2 = ✏0 (2)E12 = ✏0 (2)A21 ei2k1z (3)
The generation of the wave at 2! is governed by the wave equation
n2 @ 2Ẽ2 1 @ 2P̃2
r2Ẽ2 2 2 = 2 2 . (4)
c @t ✏0c @t
 Treatment of Second-Harmonic Generation – II

Note that the first 2term in the wave equation3 is given by

6 @ 2 Ã @ Ã2 7
2
2 k2 A27775 ei(k2z 2!t)
2
6 7
r Ẽ2 = 64 2 + 2ik2
6
6 (5)
@z @z
2 3
6 @ Ã2 7

k2 A27775 ei(k2z 2!t)

2
6 7
⇡ 642ik2
6
6 (6)
@z
The second form is the slowly varying amplitude approximation.
Note also that
@ 2Ã2 2 i(k 2 z 2!t) @ 2P̃
2 2P ei(2k1z 2!t) (7)
= (2!) A 2 e = (2!) 2
@t2 @t2
By combining the above equations, we obtain
dA2 4! 2 (2) 2 i k z
2ik2 = 2 A1 e where k = 2k1 k2. (8)
dz c
The quantity k is known as the phase (or wavevector) mismatch
factor, and it is crucially important in determining the efficiency of
nonlinear optical interactions
 Treatment of Second-Harmonic Generation – III

For the case k = 0, Eq. (8) becomes

dA2 4! 2 (2) 2
2ik2 = 2 A1 (9)
dz c
with solution evaluated at z = L of
2i! (2) 2 4! 2
A2(L) = A1L or |A2(L)|2 = 2 2 [ (2)]2|A1|4L2. (10)
n2 c n2 c
Note that the SHG intensity scales as the square of the input intensity
and also as the square of the length L of the crystal.
2ω
2ω

dipole emitter phased array of dipoles

 Treatment of Second-Harmonic Generation – IV

For the general case of k 6= 0, Eq. (8) can still be solved to yield
4! 2
|A2(L)|2 = 2 2 [ (2)]2 |A1|4L2 sinc2( k L/2) (11)
n2 c
Note that k L must be kept much smaller than ⇡ radians in order
for efficient SHG to occur.
 Second Harmonic Generation and Nonlinear Microscopy
Nonlinear Optical Microscopy

An important application of harmonic generation is nonlinear microscopy. . .

Microscopy based on second-harmonic generation in the configuration of a confocal

microscope and excited by femtosecond laser pulses was introduced by Curley et al.
(1992). Also, harmonic-generation microscopy can be used to form images of transpar-
ent (phase) objects, because the phase matching condition of nonlinear optics depends
sensitively on the refractive index variation within the sample being imaged (Muller et
al., 1998).

Boyd, NLO, Subsection 2.7.1

 Caution!

Curley et al., not Curly et al.

 How to Achieve Phase Matching: Birefringence Phase Matching
The phase matching condition k = 0 requires that
n1!1 n2!2 n3!1
+ = where !1 + !2 = !3
c c c
These conditions are incompatible in an isotropic dispersive material.
However, for a birefringent material phase matching can be achieved.

ĉ
ω θ 2ω
k
ordinary extraordinary

Midwinter and Warner showed that there are two ways to achieve phase matching:
Positive uniaxial Negative uniaxial
(ne > n0) (ne < n0)

Type I n03!3 = ne1!1 + ne2!2 ne3!3 = no1!1 + no2!2

Type II n03!3 = no1!1 + ne2!2 ne3!3 = ne1!1 + no2!2
 How to Achieve Phase Matching: Quasi Phase Matching

single domain crystal periodically poled crystal

Λ
(2)
Sign of is periodically inverted to prevent reverse power flow.

(a) with perfect phase-matching

(b) with quasi-phase-matching

field amplitude

(c) with a wavevector

mismatch

0 2 4 6 8
z / Lcoh
Additional Studies of Wave Propagation Effects
3. Mechanisms of Optical Nonlinearity
 Typical Values of the Nonlinear Refractive Index

(3)
n2 a 1111 Response time
Mechanism (cm2/W) 2
(m /V )2
(sec)

Electronic polarization 10 16 10 22 10 15
Molecular orientation 10 14 10 20 10 12
Electrostriction 10 14 10 20 10 9
Saturated atomic absorption 10 10 10 16 10 8
Thermal e↵ects 10 6 10 12 10 3
Photorefractive e↵ectb (large) (large) (intensity-dependent)
a
For linearly polarized light.
b
The photorefractive e↵ect often leads to a very strong nonlinear response. This response usually
cannot be described in terms of a (3) (or an n2) nonlinear susceptibility, because the nonlinear po-
larization does not depend on the applied field strength in the same manner as the other mechanisms
listed.
 Quantum Mechanical Origin of the Nonlinear Optical Suesceptibility

l l l l
(2)
ijk (!p + !q €, !q €, !p )
(a1 )
n n
(a ) (a )
1
iln jnm kml
2
N (0) m m
= ll ωq ωp
2 0 h2 [(!nl !p !q ) i nl ][(!ml !p ) i ml ] ωp ωq
lmn l l l l

iln knm jml

+ (a2 )
[(!nl !p !q ) i nl ][(!ml !q ) i ml ]
n n n n
kln inm jml
+ (a1 ) m m (a' )
[(!mn !p !q ) i mn ][(!nl + !p ) + i nl ] (a' )
1
ωq ωp
2

jln inm kml ωp ωq

+ (a2 )
l l l l
[(!mn !p !q ) i mn ][(!nl + !q ) + i nl ]
jln inm kml n n n n
+ (b1 )
[(!nm + !p + !q ) + i nm ][(!ml !p ) i ml ] (b ) (b 2 )
1

kln inm jml

m ωq m ωp
+ (b2 ) ωp ωq
[(!nm + !p + !q ) + i nm ][(!ml !q ) i ml ] l l l l

kln jnm iml

+ (b1 )
[(!ml + !p + !q ) + i ml ][(!nl + !p ) + i nl ]
m m m m
jln knm iml
+ (b2 ) b' )
[(!ml + !p + !q ) + i ml ][(!nl + !q ) + i nl ] b'
2

1 n ωq n ωp

ωp ωq
l l l l
 Some Actual Z-Scan Data

Closed aperture Open aperture

1.2
I0 = 0.176 GW/cm2 1.2
gold-silica composite
transmission

CS2

transmission
1.1
1.0

1.0
n2 =
Chang, Shin 0.0373 cm2/GW
0.8 Piredda
0.9
–20 0 20
–125 0 125
z (mm)
z (mm)
For closed aperture z-scan
ΔTpv = 0.406 ΦNL
where M. Sheik-Bahae et al., IEEE J.
ΦNL = n2 (ω/c) Ι0 L Quantum Electron. 26 760 (1990).
6. Self-Action Effects in Nonlinear Optics
 Self-Action Effects in Nonlinear Optics
Self-action effects: light beam modifies its own propagation

t
TFMG
GPDVTJOH

t
TFMG
USBQQJOH d

t
TNBMMTDBMF
öMBNFOUBUJPO
 Prediction of Self Trapping

n = n0

d n = n0 + n

n = n0

radial profile of self

-trapped beam
 Optical Solitons
Field distributions that propagate without change of form

Temporal solitons (nonlinearity balances gvd)

1973: Hasegawa & Tappert

1980: Mollenauer, Stolen, Gordon

Spatial solitons (nonlinearity balances diffraction)

1964: Garmire, Chiao, Townes

1974: Ashkin and Bjorkholm (Na)
1985: Barthelemy, Froehly (CS2)
1991: Aitchison et al. (planar glass waveguide
1992: Segev, (photorefractive)
Solitons and self-focussing in Ti:Sapphire

Diffraction-management
controls the spatial self-
focussing

Dispersion-management
controls the temporal
self-focussing
 Beam Breakup by Small-Scale Filamentation

Predicted by Bespalov and Talanov (1966)

Exponential growth of wavefront imperfections by four-wave mixing processes

Sidemode amplitude grows as A1(z) = A1(0)ei z e z

q2 q2
exponential growth rate, /

2
= 2 ,
2k 2k
= n2 ( / c)I0 , q = k

qmax = 2k
qmax
transverse wavevector, q/qmax max =
k
 Honeycomb Pattern Formation
Output from cell with a single gaussian input beam
At medium input power At high input power

at cell exit in far field at cell exit in far field

Quantum statistics?
Input power 100 to150 mW Sodium vapor cell T = 220o C
Input beam diameter 0.22 mm Wavelength = 588 nm
Bennink et al., PRL 88, 113901 2002.
 Optical Radiance Limiter Based on Spatial Coherence Control

Controlled small-scale filamentation used to modify spatial degree of coherence

Alternative to standard appropches to optical power limiting

spatially spatially
coherent n2 medium incoherent
light in light out

1.6

1.2

0.8
Far-field dif

increasing power
0.4

0
Schweinsberg et al., Phys. Rev. A 84, 053837 (2011). 0 10 20 30
Incident pulse ener
4. Local-Field Effects in Nonlinear Optics
 Local Field Effects in Nonlinear Optics – I

Recall the Lorentz-Lorenz Law

E
(linear optics) E P
loc

N α ϵ (1) − 1 4
(1)
χ = or (1) = πN α.
4
1 − 3 πN α ϵ +2 3

This result follows from the assumption that the field that acts on a
representative atom is not the macroscopic Maxwell field but rather
the Lorentz local field given by

Eloc = E + 43 πP where P = χ(1)E

We can rewrite this result as

ϵ(1) + 2
Eloc = LE where L = is the local field factor.
3
 The Lorentz Red Shift

See, for instance, H. A. Lorentz, Theory of Electrons, Dover, NY (1952).

 Observation of the Lorentz Red Shift

Maki, Malcuit, Sipe, and Boyd, Phys. Rev. Lett. 68, 972 (1991).
 Local Field Effects in Nonlinear Optics – II

For the case of nonlinear optics, Bloembergen (1962, 1965) showed

that, for instance,

χ(3)(ω = ω + ω − ω) = N γ (3)|L(ω)|2[L(ω)]2.

where γ (3) is the second hyperpolarizability and where

ϵ(ω) + 2
L(ω) =
3

For the typical value n = 2, L = 2, and L4 = 16. Local field effects

can be very large in nonlinear optics! But can we tailor them for our
benefit?
We have been developing new photonic materials with enhanced NLO
response by using composite structures that exploit local field effects.
Nanocomposite Materials for Nonlinear Optics
)
i

2a a
h
b
b

Fractal Str e Layer

a
b

- In each case, scale size of inhomo eneity << optical avele

- s all optical properties, ch as n an , can be escribe by
effective r ) s
 Local Field Enhancement of the NLO Response
- Under very general conditions, we can express the NL
response as (3) 2 2 (3)
eff = fL L
where f is the volume fraction of nonlinear material and L is
the local-field factor, which is different for each material geometry.
- Under appropriate conditions, the product f L2 L 2 can exceed unity.

+2
- For a homogeneous material L=
3
- For a spherical particle of dielectric constant m embedded in a host
of dielectic constant h 3h
L=
m +2 h

- For a layered geometry with the electric field perpendicular to the

plane of the layers, the local field factor for component a is given by
eff 1 fa fb
L= = +
a eff a b
 Enhanced NLO Response from Layered Composite Materials
A composite material can display a larger NL response than its constituents!

Alternating layers of TiO2 and Quadratic EO effect

the conjugated polymer PBZT. gold electrode
BaTiO3
AF-30 in signal generator
polycarbonate 1 kHz
ITO
glass substrate

photodiode

polarizer

dc voltmeter
Diode Laser
Measure NL phase shift as a (1.37 um) lockin amplifier
function of angle of incidence.

35% enhancement in (3) 3.2 times enhancement!

Fischer, Boyd, Gehr, Jenekhe, Osaheni, Sipe, and

Weller-Brophy, Phys. Rev. Lett. 74, 1871 (1995). Nelson and Boyd, APL 74 2417 (1999)
Accessing the Optical Nonlinearity of Metals with Metal-Dielectric
Photonic Crystal Structures
Metals have very large optical nonlinearities but low transmission
Low transmission because metals are highly reflecting (not because they are absorbing!)
Solution: construct metal-dielectric photonic crystal structure
(linear properties studied earlier by Bloemer and Scalora)
SiO2 Cu PC structure
E Cu E
80 nm of
bulk metal
copper (total)
80 nm of copper
T = 0.3% T = 10%

z 0 L z

Bennink, Yoon, Boyd, and Sipe, Opt.

Lett. 24, 1416 (1999). bulk Cu

M/D PC
Lepeshkin, Schweinsverg, Piredda, Bennink, (response twelve-
nm
and Boyd, Phys. Rev. Lett. 93, 123902 (2004). times larger)
I = 500 MW/cm2
Gold-Doped Glass: A Maxwell-Garnett Composite

Red Glass Caraffe

Nurenberg, ca. 1700
Huelsmann Museum, Bielefeld

Developmental Glass, Corning Inc.

gold volume fraction approximately 10-6
gold particles approximately 10 nm diameter

• Composite materials can possess properties very different

from those of their constituents.
• Red color is because the material absorbs very strong in the
blue, at the surface plasmon frequency
 Counterintuitive Consequence of Local Field Effects
Cancellation of two contributions that have the same sign
Gold nanoparticles in a reverse saturable absorber dye solution (13 μM HITCI)
1.3
9 SA
normalized transmittance

1.2
8 β<0
Increasing Gold
1.1 7 Content (3)
Im < 0
1.0 6
(3)
0.9 Im > 0
5

0.8 4 β>0
3
0.7 RSA
2 (3) 2 2 (3) (3)
0.6
eff = f L L i + h
1
0.5
-10 0 10 20 30
z (cm)

D.D. Smith, G. Fischer, R.W. Boyd, D.A.Gregory, JOSA B 14, 1625, 1997.
 NLO in Plasmonics (Photonics Using Metals)
Is there an intrinsic nonlinear reponse to surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs)?

2 is106 times that of silica)

sp
Rotation Translation
TM stage sp
polarized Au film stage
z
Laser x
PD
y
HWP PBS Aperture

sp
sp
1.0 0 1 2 3
Kretschmann
dip
Ssp
0.5 TIR onset
Reflectance, R

increasing
power
Pi = 2.70 mW
Pi = 8.70 mW
0.1 Pi = 15.0 mW
Pi = 22.8 mW
Pi = 28.4 mW
0.05
41.5 42 42.5 43 43.5 I. De Leon, Z. Shi, A. Liapis and R.W.Boyd, Optics Letters 39, 2274 (2014)
Incidence angle, (deg.)
Slow Light in a Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) Structure
(Can describe properties of FBGs by means of analytic expressions)

forward and backward waves dispersion relation

are strongly coupled

slow light
theory (Winful)
k k
stored energy (same as group index)

KL = 4

Bhat and Sipe showed that the

nonlinear coeficient is given by

detuning from Bragg frequency where the slow-down factor S = ng/n

Improved Slow-Light Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) Structure
Much larger slow-down factors possible
Observation of (thermal)
with a Gaussian-profile grating
optical bistability at mW
power levels

group index
approximately 140

H. Wen, M. Terrel, S. Fan and M. Digonnet, IEEE Sensors J. 12, 156-163 (2012).
J. Upham, I. De Leon, D. Grobnic, E. Ma, M.-C. N. Dicaire, S.A. Schulz, S. Murugkar, and R.W. Boyd,
Optics Letters 39, 849-852 (2014).
The other Lake Como
5. Slow and Fast Light
 Controlling the Velocity of Light

“Slow,” “Fast” and “Backwards” Light

– Light can be made to go:
slow: vg << c (as much as 106 times slower!)
fast: vg > c
backwards: vg negative
Here vg is the group velocity: vg = c/ng ng = n + (dn/d )

– Velocity controlled by structural or material resonances

absorption
profile

Review article: Boyd and Gaut ier, Science 326, 1074 (2009).
Slow and Fast Light Using Isolated Gain or Absorption Resonances

absorption g gain
resonance resonance

0 0
n n

slow light ng
ng
slow light
fast light
fast light
ng = n + (dn/d )
 Light speed reduction
to 17 metres per second 60 MHz
|4〉 = |F =3, MF = –2 〉
|3〉 = |F =2, MF = –2 〉
in an ultracold atomic gas
Lene Vestergaard Hau*², S. E. Harris³, Zachary Dutton*² ωc ωp D2 line
& Cyrus H. Behroozi*§ λ = 589 nm
* Rowland Institute for Science, 100 Edwin H. Land Boulevard, Cambridge,
Massachusetts 02142, USA |2〉 = |F =2, MF = –2 〉
² Department of Physics, § Division of Engineering and Applied Sciences, 1.8 GHz
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA |1〉 = |F =1, MF = –1〉
³ Edward L. Ginzton Laboratory, Stanford University, Stanford, California
94305, USA

NATURE | VOL 397 | 18 FEBRUARY 1999 |www.nature.com

30
0.8
0.7 a
0.6 25 T = 450 nK
Transmission

0.5
0.4 τDelay = 7.05 ± 0.05 μs
0.3 20
L = 229 ± 3 μm
0.2

PMT signal (mV)

0.1 vg = 32.5 ± 0.5 m s–1
15
–30 –20 –10 0 10 20 30

1.006
b 10
1.004
Refractive index

1.002
1.000
5
0.998
0.996
0.994 0
–30 –20 –10 0 10 20 30 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Probe detuning (MHz) Time (
μs)
Note also related work by Chu, Wong, Welch, Scully, Budker, Ketterle, and many others
 Goal: Slow Light in a Room-Temperature
Solid-State Material

Crucial for many real-world applications

We have identified two preferred methods for producing

slow light

(1) Slow light via coherent population oscillations (CPO)

(2) Slow light via stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS)
 Slow Light by Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS)
S
= L
-
dI S
= gI LI S
L dz
2 2
e
S g= .
nv c3 0 B
z
We often think of SBS as a pure gain process, but it also leads to a change in refractive index

Stokes gain monochromatic

refractive index SBS gain

pump laser

anti-Stokes loss

slow light fast light

G
The induced time delay is Td where G= g Ip L and B is the Brillouin linewidth
B
Okawachi, Bigelow, Sharping, Zhu, Schweinsberg, Gauthier, Boyd, and Gaeta Phys. Rev. Lett. 94, 153902 (2005).
Related results reported by Song, González Herráez and Thévenaz, Optics Express 13, 83 (2005).
 Slow Light via Coherent Population Oscillations
b
E3, + +
saturable 2 1
2 = =
medium measure ba T ba T
2 1
E1, absorption
a

absorption
ng = n + dn/d T2 << T1 profile 1/T1
1/T2
Want a narrow feature in absorption
profile to give a large dn/d
Ground state population oscillates at beat frequency (for < 1/T1).
Population oscillations lead to decreased probe absorption
(by explicit calculation), even though broadening is homogeneous.
Ultra-slow light (ng > 106) observed in ruby and ultra-fast light
(ng = –4 x 105) observed in alexandrite.
Slow and fast light effects occur at room temperature!
PRL 90,113903(2003); Science, 301, 200 (2003)
Slow and Fast Light in an Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier
Advance = 0.32 ms
• Fiber geometry allows long propagation length
Output Input
• Saturable gain or loss possible depending on
pump intensity FWHM =
1.8 ms

Time
0.15

- 97.5 mW

Fractional Advancement
0.1 - 49.0 mW
- 24.5 mW
- 9.0 mW
0.05 - 6.0 mW
- 0 mW

6 ms
-0.05

out
in -0.1
10 100 10 3 10 4 10 5
Modulation Frequency (Hz)
Schweinsberg, Lepeshkin, Bigelow, Boyd, and Jarabo, Europhysics Letters, 73, 218 (2006).
 Observation of Backward Pulse Propagation
in an Erbium-Doped-Fiber Optical Amplifier
or
Ref
80/20
1550 nm laser ISO
coupler
WDM
980 nm laser EDF

Signal
1550
980 WDM

We time-resolve the propagation 3

normalized intensity
pulse is placed on a cw
of the pulse as a function of
background to minimize
position along the erbium- 2 pulse distortion
doped fiber.
Procedure 1 in
• cutback method
out
• couplers embedded in fiber 0

G. M. Gehring, A. Schweinsberg, C. Barsi, N. Kostinski, 0 2 4 6

R. W. Boyd, Science 312, 985 2006. time (ms)
 Observation of Superluminal and
“Backwards” Pulse Propagation

LABorATorYrESULTS
s!STrONGLY concEPTUALPrEDIcTION
ng negative
counTerinTUITIvE
PHENOMENON

sBUTEnTIrELY
cONSISTenTWITH t=0
ESTABLISHEDPHySICS
t=3
s0REDICTEDBY'ARRETT
t=6
AND-C#UMBER
AND#HIAO  t=9

t = 12

s/BSERVEDBYGEHring,
3CHWEINSBERG"ARSI t = 15

+OSTINSKIAND"OYD
3CIENcE,

propagation distance -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1x105

Normalized length |n g|Z (m)
 Causality?

t

4VQFSMVNJOBM
WgD

BOE
CBDLXBSET
Wg
OFHBUJWF

QSPQBHBUJPO
NBZ
TFFN





DPVOUFSJOUVJUJWF
CVU
BSF
GVMMZ
DPNQBUJCMF
XJUI
DBVTBMJUZ

t

5IF
HSPVQ
WFMPDJUZ
JT
UIF
WFMPDJUZ
BU
XIJDI
QFBL
PG
QVMTF
NPWFT

JU
JT
OPU





UIF
iJOGPSNBUJPO
WFMPDJUZw

t

*U
JT
CFMJFWFE
UIBU
JOGPSNBUJPO
JT
DBSSJFE
CZ
QPJOUT
PG
OPOBMZUJDJUZ
PG
B
XBWFGPSN
pulse amplitude

time
sBroad spectral content at points of discontinuity
sDISTURBANce moves at vacuum speed of light
see, for instance, R. Y. Chiao
8. Spontaneous and Stimulated Light Scattering
Experiment in Self Assembly

Joe Davis, MIT

Thank you for your attention!