15.

92 SECTION FIFTEEN

depth, ft, of stiffening girders and stiffening trusses should be at least L / 120 ⫹ (L / 1,000)2,
where L is the span, ft. Furthermore, EI of the stiffening system should be at least bL4 /
120兹ƒ, where b is the width, ft, of the bridge and ƒ the cable sag, ft.

15.21.5 Natural Frequencies of Suspension Bridges

Dynamic analyses require knowledge of the natural frequencies of free vibration, modes of
motion, energy-storage relationships, magnitude and effects of damping, and other factors.
Two types of vibration must be considered: bending and torsion.

Bending. The fundamental differential equation [Eq. (15.22)] and cable condition [Eq.
(15.26)] of the suspension bridge in Fig. 15.46 can be transformed into
EI␩ ⵳ ⫺ H␩ ⴖ ⫽ ␻ 2m␩ ⫹ Hp y ⴖ (15.60)
Hp Lc
Ec Ac
⫹ yⴖ 冕 L

0
␩ dx ⫽ 0 (15.61)

where ␻ ⫽ circular natural frequency of the bridge

␩ ⫽ deflection of stiffening truss or girder
m ⫽ bridge mass ⫽ w / g
y ⫽ vertical distance from cable to the line through the pylon supports
w ⫽ dead load, lb per lin ft
g ⫽ acceleration due to gravity ⫽ 32.2 ft / s2
From these equations, the basic Rayleigh energy equation for bending vibrations can be
derived:

冕 EI␩ ⴖ dx ⫹ H 冕 ␩ ⬘ dx ⫹ ELA 冉y ⴖ 冕 ␩ dx冊 ⫽ ␻ 冕 m ␩

2
2 2 c c 2 2
dx (15.62)
c

Symbols are defined in ‘‘Torsion,’’ following. After ␻ has been determined from this, the
natural frequency of the bridge ␻ / 2␲, Hz, can be computed.

Torsion. The Rayleigh energy equations for torsion are

冕 ␾ ⴖ dx ⫹ 冉GI 冊冕 冉 冕 冊 2
b 2H Ec Ac
ECs 2
T ⫹ ␾ ⬘2 dx ⫹ y ⴖb ␾ dx
2 2Lc

冕 ␩ ⴖ␾ ⴖ dx ⫽ ␻ I 冕 ␾
⫹ EIy yM 2
p
2
dx (15.63)

EIy yM 冕 ␾ⴖ␩ⴖ dx ⫹ EI 冕 ␩ⴖ dx ⫽ ␻ m 冕 ␩ dx
y
2 2 2
(15.64)

where ␾ ⫽ angle of twist, radians

E ⫽ modulus of elasticity of stiffening girder, ksf
G ⫽ modulus of rigidity of stiffening girder, ksf
IT ⫽ polar moment of inertia of stiffening girder cross section, ft4
Ip ⫽ mass moment of inertia of stiffening girder per unit of length, kips-sec2
Iv ⫽ moment of inertia of stiffening girder about its vertical axis, ft4
Cs ⫽ warping resistance of stiffening girder relative to its center of gravity, ft6
b ⫽ horizontal distance between cables, ft
H ⫽ horizontal component of cable tension, kips
 CABLE-SUSPENDED BRIDGES 15.93

Ac ⫽
cross-sectional area of cable, ft2
Ec ⫽
modulus of elasticity of cable, ksf
Lc 兰 sec3 ␣ dx
⫽
␣ ⫽
angle cable makes with horizontal, radians
yM ⫽
ordinate of center of twist relative to the center of gravity of stiffening girder
cross section, ft
␻ ⫽ circular frequency, radians per sec
m ⫽ m (x ) ⫽ mass of stiffening girder per unit of length, kips-sec2 / ft2
Solution of these equations for the natural frequencies and modes of motion is dependent
on the various possible static forms of suspension bridges involved (see Fig. 15.9). Numerous
lengthy tabulations of solutions have been published.

15.21.6 Damping

Damping is of great importance in lessening of wind effects. It is responsible for dissipation

of energy imparted to a vibrating structure by exciting forces. When damping occurs, one
part of the external energy is transformed into molecular energy, and another part is trans-
mitted to surrounding objects or the atmosphere. Damping may be internal, due to elastic
hysteresis of the material or plastic yielding and friction in joints, or Coulomb (dry friction),
or atmospheric, due to air resistance.

15.21.7 Aerodynamics of Cable-Stayed Bridges

The aerodynamic action of cable-stayed bridges is less severe than that of suspension bridges,
because of increased stiffness due to the taut cables and the widespread use of torsion box
decks. However, there is a trend towards the use of the composite steel-concrete superstruc-
ture girders (Fig. 15.16) for increasingly longer spans and to reduce girder dead weight. This
configuration, because of the long spans and decreased mass, can be relatively more sensitive
to aerodynamic effects as compared to a torsionally stiff box.

15.21.8 Stability Investigations

It is most important to note that the validation of stability of the completed structure for
expected wind speeds at the site is mandatory. However, this does not necessarily imply that
the most critical stability condition of the structure occurs when the structure is fully com-
pleted. A more dangerous condition may occur during erection, when the joints have not
been fully connected and, therefore, full stiffness of the structure has not yet been realized.
In the erection stage, the frequencies are lower than in the final condition and the ratio of
torsional frequency to flexural frequency may approach unity. Various stages of the partly
erected structure may be more critical than the completed bridge. The use of welded com-
ponents in pylons has contributed to their susceptibility to vibration during erection.
Because no exact analytical procedures are yet available, wind-tunnel tests should be used
to evaluate the aerodynamic characteristics of the cross section of a proposed deck girder,
pylon, or total bridge. More importantly, the wind-tunnel tests should be used during the
design process to evaluate the performance of a number of proposed cross sections for a
particular project. In this manner, the wind-tunnel investigations become a part of the design
decision process and not a postconstruction corrective action. If the wind-tunnel evaluations
are used as an after-the-fact verification and they indicate an instability, there is the distinct
risk that a redesign of a retrofit design will be required that will have undesirable ramifi-
cations on schedules and availability of funding.