Chapter 1.2.

6: Erosion Processes and Control 1

Module 1: Basics of Watershed Management Bio-Physics

Chapter 1.2.6: Erosion Processes and Control

A. Understanding Erosion
Erosion is part of the long-term geological processes of mountain formation and decline,
which occurs under any vegetation type and is an essential part of soil development [8].

Box 1: Erosion is a process involving the detachment, transportation and deposition of

soil particles by water or wind [5].

The erosion of soil and its transport out of the watershed are complex processes. They
include sediment mobilisation on the watershed surface, its delivery into the drainage
channel network, and the subsequent sediment accumulation within a watershed as well
as further downstream [3].
Water quality can be significantly affected by soil erosion. Increased levels of nitrogen and
phosphorus along with higher sediment loads are the leading contributors to a reduction in
water quality. Nitrogen and phosphorus are able to transfer from agricultural fields to
surface water when sediment is transported through run off and soil erosion. As result of
the nitrogen and phosphorus enriched sediments, there is the occurrence of
eutrophication 1 as well as decreasing oxygen levels in water bodies [7].
Efforts that are made to try and reduce erosion to zero in inhabited landscapes will fail, but
the erosion rate can be significantly reduced through different interventions. Perceptions
of the optimum degree of erosion control and soil conservation will differ between the
interest groups from the uplands and those who live downstream. In the case of upland
farmers for example, the loss of soil productivity is often much more important than the
loss of the soil itself, as the soil that is being relocated tends to be rich in organic matter
and nutrients 2 . On the other hand for the downstream farmers the primary concern is the
volume of eroded soil from the uplands, because it can cause them problems, such as the
sedimentation of irrigation channels or reservoirs [8].
This chapter will further examine different types of erosion, the natural and human-
induced factors that influence erosion, as well as introduce erosion control and soil
conservation measures.

B. Types of Erosion
There are seven major types of erosion which can be distinguished from each other in the
following ways:
Raindrop or splash erosion results from the soil splash that is caused by the impact of
falling raindrops on a bare soil surface. The rate of raindrop erosion depends on the
climate (e.g. rain intensity, rain drop size and temperature), the soil (e.g. infiltration), the
topography (e.g. steepness) and the vegetation characteristics (e.g. leaf size and ground
cover). Water drops that fall on a bare soil surface either from direct rainfall or are
intercepted by the vegetation cover as through fall, cause a break down of soil aggregates

1
Eutrophication is water pollution due to the excessive supply of nutrients, which result in a high primary
production.
2
In upland systems, plant yields are reduced more by a shortage or excess of soil moisture or nutrients rather
than by soil losses per se [8].
Chapter 1.2.6: Erosion Processes and Control 2

and detach soil particles. The fine particles then form a thin muddy film, which reduces the
infiltration rate and contributes to more water run off. This gradually removes the fine
materials such as silt and clay from the soil and leaves the less fertile sand and gravel
behind [5].

Figure 1: Effect of Raindrop Impacts [1]

Figure 1 shows the destructive power of splash erosion, when considering that the kinetic
energy of a moving object, such as a raindrop, is equal to half its mass multiplied by its
m 2
speed, squared ( e = ⋅ v ). As water drops grow in size, both their speed and mass also
2
increase. For example the mass of a 5 mm drop is 125 times that of a 1 mm drop, and so
the speed with which it hits the ground doubles, resulting in a force of energy that is 500
times larger! Thus the erosive power of rain increases dramatically as larger drops fall, as
they cause more profound and destructive impacts [1].

Figure 2: Sheet, Rill and Gully Erosion [1]

Sheet erosion is the more or less even removal of a thin layer of soil. It is an
inconspicuous type of erosion, since the total amount of soil that is removed in any storm
is minimal. It therefore often goes unnoticed because it occurs gradually without a
Chapter 1.2.6: Erosion Processes and Control 3

pronounced change. However, over the years this form of erosion can culminate in quite a
significant amount.
Rill erosion: The previously mentioned sheet erosion only occurs when the surface is
smooth and has a consistent gradient, which actually is rare in cultivated fields. Therefore,
rain water more commonly concentrates in depressions and then begins to flow along the
path of least resistance. This action produces rills in the ground which are small enough to
be easily removed by normal tillage operations [5].
Gully erosion is an advanced stage of rill erosion, as unattended rills are deepened and
widened through intense overland flow until they attain the form of gullies. Gullies often
begin as the tracks that have been made by the movements of machinery or livestock.
The rate of gully erosion mainly depends on the characteristics that determine the runoff
of a watershed, such as the soil characteristics, as well as the size and shape of the gully
and the slope of the gully channel. The process takes place in the following four stages
[5]:
1. The formation stage – whereby channel erosion occurs through a downward scour of
the top soil.
2. The development stage that consists of the upstream movement of the gully head and
the enlargement of the gully both in width and depth.
3. The heading stage – when vegetation begins to grow in the channel.
4. The stabilisation stage – where the gully reaches a stable gradient, the gully walls
reach a stable slope and vegetation cover spreads over the gully surface.
Stream bank erosion is the scouring out of materials which form the water channel and
the undercutting of the stream or river banks by running water. Bank undercutting is the
most common form of stream erosion and is particularly noticeable on the outside bank at
the beginning of bends in meandering streams. Stream banks are eroded by overland flow
pouring over the side of the bank, by scouring or also by undercutting. Stream bank
erosion is influenced by the velocity and direction of flow, the depth and width of the
channel as well as the soil texture. It can also be accelerated once vegetation is removed
from the stream bank [5].
Landslide erosion is common on steep hill slopes which are subject to heavy rainfall. The
soil becomes saturated and its weight increases, whilst the water at the same time also
weakens the cohesion between the soil particles. This causes the soil to yield to the
forces of gravity and slide down the slope [5].
Wind erosion is similar to sheet erosion, but in this case air, as opposed to water is the
transporting medium. The three types of wind erosion include suspension, saltation and
surface creep, which have been illustrated in figure 3 below. Saltation accounts for the
largest volume of erosion by wind [1].
Chapter 1.2.6: Erosion Processes and Control 4

Figure 3: Types of Wind Erosion [1]

The soil texture and also the different particle sizes 3 influence wind erosion processes and
characterise the following different types of wind erosion (see also figure 3):
ˆ The sand sized particles move in a rolling motion or in short hops close to the soil
surface (surface creep erosion).
ˆ The silt sized particles move in longer hops or by jumping (saltating) above the soil
surface (saltation erosion).
ˆ The clay sized particles are lifted up into the air and are carried along by the wind
(suspension erosion).
Please refer to a technical annex to view pictures of some of the above mentioned types
4
of erosion .

C. Factors Affecting Erosion

The intensity and extent of erosion that occurs in watersheds can be influenced by the
following natural and human-induced factors [1]:

Natural factors
ˆ Heavy rains on bare soil: Rain drops loosen the soil particles and water transports
them downhill.
ˆ Vegetation depleted by drought: rain drops are free to hit the soil, causing erosion
during rainfall. Additionally winds blow away the fine particles during droughts.
ˆ Steep slopes: The gravitational pull is stronger and water flows faster whilst the soil
creeps, slips or slumps downhill.
ˆ A sudden change of climatic conditions:
• Rainfall: Rapid unexpected increases in erosion as rainstorms become more
severe.

3
See also: TA: Geology and Soils [1.2.1]
4
See also: TA: Picture Gallery Erosion [1.2.6]
Chapter 1.2.6: Erosion Processes and Control 5

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• Drought: As the water dries up and soil biota or vegetation that is unable to
adapt dies, the soil becomes vulnerable to wind erosion and also sudden rains
are able to cause enormous damage.
• Changing wind direction: Areas that were previously sheltered become exposed.

Human-induced factors
ˆ Land use change: If the land loses its vegetation cover, such as through deforestation,
it also loses soil biota and porosity, resulting in decreased infiltration capacity and
increased erosion.
ˆ Intensive farming: Activities such as ploughing with machinery, the excessive
application of fertilisers and irrigation can damage the soil as they destroy its structure
and porosity, which again leads to decreased infiltration capacity and increased
erosion.
ˆ Infrastructure development: Massive earthworks that occur in the landscape, such as
through the construction of housing expose the soil and leave it bare, thereby
increasing the risk of erosion. Extensive infrastructure development also often leads to
soil compaction and the sealing of soil surfaces which decreases the infiltration
capacity and increases the velocity of overland flow.
ˆ Road construction: If roads are cut into the landscape, soil surfaces become damaged
and exposed, which often provides the starting point for rill erosion and channel
development. The erosion risk is especially high if not enough attention is being paid
to the drainage of rainwater as a part of the road maintenance operation.

D. Erosion Control and Soil Conservation Measures

Erosion control and soil conservation are closely linked as they involve the management
of soil erosion and sedimentation in order to reduce their negative impacts. The two major
benefits that they provide are that they lessen soil erosion and maintain soil fertility [8].
The key to erosion control is preventing the detachment of soil particles and reducing the
volume of runoff. In general this can be achieved by minimising activities that damage the
land surface, such as for example ploughing on slopes and conducting logging operations
using heavy machinery. Other preventative measures include the maintenance of
vegetative cover and the establishment of sediment controlling structures in the
landscape.
In general, one can distinguish the following three different categories of erosion control
and soil conservation measures (see also figure 4):
6
ˆ Vegetative (or agronomic) measures utilise the role of vegetation to minimise erosion
by increasing the soil’s surface cover, the surface roughness and soil infiltration [8]. In
addition to the measures mentioned in the figure 4, contour hedgerows and alley
cropping systems, improved fallow systems, as well as natural vegetative strips
belong to this category.
ˆ Soil management measures are concerned with ways of preparing the soil to promote
dense vegetative growth and improve the soil structure, so that it is more resistant to
erosion. Some techniques in this group include minimum and contour tillage, ridging
and the application of manure [8].
ˆ Structural (or mechanical) measures attempt to control the energy of flowing water
that causes erosion, through the manipulation of the surface topography by installing

5
Soil biotas are organisms (e.g. invertebrates) that live in the soil or in close contact with the soil [9].
6
Vegetative (or agronomic) and soil management measures are also called non-structural measures
Chapter 1.2.6: Erosion Processes and Control 6

structural elements such as terraces and ditches ([4], [8]). These measures reduce
the velocity of the overland flow and will increase the time for the overland flow to be
absorbed or infiltrate into the ground [2]. Waterways are preferably laid out on natural
drainage lines to minimise soil erosion. They are even more effective in minimising
soil erosion, if they are covered by grass.

Erosion Control and Soil Conservation

Vegetative/ Soil management Structural

agronomic measures measures measures

Mulching Crop management Conservation tillage

Contour Minimum
Natural Synthetic Ridging
tillage tillage

High density Multiple Cover cropping

planting cropping (fallow system)

Crop Strip Terracing Waterways Structures

rotation cropping

Figure 4: Overview of Erosion Control and Soil Conservation Measures [adapted from 8]

Selected measures of the three categories are briefly described in the chapter related to
7
best practices and lessons learnt .
Although it is possible to apply single measures, it is more appropriate to use a
combination of measures from these three categories in order to reduce runoff and
thereby lower the soil and water losses in a watershed ([2], [6]). Effective erosion control
and soil conservation normally strongly rely on vegetative measures in combination with
soil management measures. Structural measures on the other hand are in the position of
playing a supporting role [8].
The impacts of erosion control and soil conservation interventions on downstream
sedimentation problems are often not as profound as originally expected. Some of the
reasons that have been given for this performance include [2]:
ˆ Data from smaller watersheds suggest that there are significant time lags, lasting up
to several decades, before interventions can achieve significant reductions in
downstream sediment loads.
ˆ Only a small portion of the sediment that has eroded from the land surface reaches
the permanent drainage channels and is transported out of a watershed.

7
See: Chapter 5.2: Best Practices and Lessons Learnt
Chapter 1.2.6: Erosion Processes and Control 7

ˆ Long time periods are required to implement erosion control and soil conservation
measures within large watersheds 8 and so they are often not followed through to the
end.

References and Sources for Further Reading

[1] Anthoni, J. F. 2000: Soil: erosion and conservation.
www.seafriends.org.nz/enviro/soil/erosion.htm
[2] DSE, 2001: Integrated Watershed Management Planning. Training Manual.
[unpublished]
[3] Fuchs 2004: Data Situation for Studies on Effects of Land-cover Changes on Water
Yield, Sediment and Nutrient Load at Catchments of the Lower Mekong Basin.
Working Paper No. 9. MRC / GTZ Watershed Management Project.
[4] Honore, G. 2002: Principles and Practices of Integrated Watershed Management in
India. Indo German Bilateral Project “Watershed Management”. New Delhi.
India. [hardcopy]
[5] Tideman, E.M. 1996: Watershed Management – Guidelines for Indian Conditions.
Omega Scientific Publishers, New Dehli. [hardcopy]
[6] UNEP, 2004: Integrated Watershed Management – Ecohydrology & Phyto-
technology Manual. Chapter 2: What are Eco-hydrology & Phyto-technology?
http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/publications/freshwater/watershed_manual/01_intro
duction-2.pdf
[7] University of Iowa 2003: Soil erosion and water quality.
www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications/PM1901E.pdf
[8] Van Noordwijk, M., Verbist, B. 2000: Soil and Water Conservation. ICRAF Lecture
Note No. 3. Bogor. Indonesia.
http://www.worldagroforestry.org/Sea/Publications/files/lecturenote/LN0013-
04.PDF
[9] Department of Ecology, Washington State, 2007: Definitions and Acronyms.
http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/tcp/policies/terrestrial/TEEDefinitions.htm

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See also: Chapter 5.3: Scaling Up