Introduction of Electric power

Transmission and Distribution:

For economical generation of power large generating stations are used. Capacities of
individual generating sets have gone up recently. Generating sets in the range of 10 MW,
210 MW and 500 MW are being manufactured in many countries. Generating station are
now not necessarily located at load centers. In fact other factors like availability of fuel and
water play more dominating role in the selection of sites for thermal stations. Hydro stations
are obviously located only at the sites where water is available at sufficient head. A vast
network of transmission system has been created so that power generated at one station
may be fed to grid system and may be distributed over large areas and number of states.
The transmission and distribution system comprises a network of three-phase circuits with
transforming and or switching substations at the various junctions. The parts of a
transmission and distribution network maybe grouped as given below.

Electric power TRANSMISSION:

Several generating stations can be inter connected. The main advantages are :

(i) reduction in the number of spare plants required as one station can assist the other at
the time of emergency.

(ii) during light loads one station or some generators can be shut off, thus affecting
operational economy.

Primary electric power transmission:

High voltages of the order of 66 kV 132 kV 220 kV and 400 kV are used for transmitting
power by 3 phase 3 wire overhead system. This is supplied to substations usually at the out
skirts of major distribution center or city.

Secondary electric power transmission:

The primary voltage is reduced to low values of the order of 3.3 kV, 11 kV or 33 kV for
secondary transmission.

Primary electric power distribution:

The transmission lines or inner connectors terminate at large main substations from which
the power is distributed to small secondary substations scattered throughout the load area.
The voltage may range from 11 kV to 132 kV.

Secondary electric power distribution:

This consists of the low-voltage network laid along the streets, localities and over the rural
areas. From these sources connections to individual customers are provided. The circuit
used for this purpose is 3 phase 4 wire, 440 V/220 V from which either 3 phase 440 V or
single phase 220 V supply to the consumers may be provided.

System layout of electric power

transmission and distribution:
From the power stations PS, emanate 3 phase feeder supplying secondary distributions
substations located at points throughout the supply area. The normal voltages are 132 kV,
33 kV and 11 kV.

COMPARISON OF AC AND DC power

TRANSMISSION:
(A) Advantages of DC electric power
transmission:
1. It requires only two conductors.
2. There is no problem of inductance, capacitance and phase displacement which is
common in ac transmission.

3. For the same load and sending end voltage, the voltage drop in dc transmission lines is
less than that in ac transmission.

4. As there is no skin effect on conductors, therefore entire cross-section of conductor is

usefully utilized thereby affecting saving in material.

5. For the same value of voltage insulating materials on dc lines experience less stress as
compared to those on ac transmission lines.

6. A dc line has less corona loss and reduced interference with communication circuits.
7. There is no problem of system instability so common in ac transmission.

Disadvantages of DC transmission:
1. Generation of power at high dc voltages is difficult due to commutation problems and
cannot be usefully utilized at Consumer ends.

2. Step up or step-down transformation of dc voltages is not possible in equipment like

transformer.

(B) Advantages of AC electric power

Transmission:
1. Power can be generated at high voltages as there is no commutation problem.
2. Ac voltages can be conveniently stepped up or stepped down.
3. High voltage transmission of ac power reduces losses.

Disadvantages of AC electric power

transmission:
1. Problems of inductances and capacitances exist in transmission lines
2. Due to skin effect, more copper is required.
3. Construction of AC transmission lines is more complicated as well as costly
4. Effective resistance of ac transmission lines is increased due to skin effect.
Long distance power transmission:
Power transmission over long distances using alternating current is complicated by the
inductance and capacitance of the line. For satisfactory operation of such lines it is
necessary to balance the lagging inductive volt amperes of the line ( I2 ωL) against the
leading capacitance volt amperes ( V2 ω C ). Equating the two we get V/I the impedance of
the load. √L/C which is also known as characteristic impedance of the line, Z 0. The
corresponding load is thus V2/Z0 watts per phase or (kV) 2/Z, M W for three phase line where
kV is the line voltage in kilo volts. This load is termed as "natural load " on the transmission
line. Long distance high power high voltage transmission lines are designed for rated load
equal to its natural load.

Natural Loads of transmission lines:

Voltage kV 132 220 400
Z0 (Ω) 350 320 290
Natural load, MW 50 150 500
Current (A) 220 385 752
CONDUCTOR MATERIALS of transmission
lines:
A material for conducting electric power should have the following properties :

1. High electrical conductivity.

2. Low cost.
3. Low specific gravity.
4. High tensile strength.
Commonly used materials for conductors are:

1. Copper.
2. Aluminium.
3. Aluminium conductor steel Reinforced (ACSR).
4. Galvanized steel.
5. Cadmium copper.

Economic Size of conductor: Kelvin's Law:

The most economical size of conductor is that for which the variable part of the annual
charges is equal to the cost of energy losses per year.
Limitations of Kelvin's Law:
1. The law assumes a linear relation between the cost on account of interest and
depreciation on the capital outlay which is not necessarily always valid. Moreover, it is
difficult to calculate these values.

2. Actual energy loss on a transmission line cannot be estimated without actual load
curves. Load curves are not available at the planning stages.

3. The conductor size estimated according to this law may not be the optimum as various
aspects of safety etc. have not been taken into account.

4. The law does not take into account some of the aspects like safe current destiny,
mechanical strength, corona loss etc.

TRANSMISSION LINES:
Transmission lines are used to transfer electrical power from one place to another. The
requirements of transmission lines are :

1. transmission losses should be least

2. power must be delivered at the specified voltage
3. no radio interference
4. high availability

Classification of overhead transmission

Lines:
1. Short Transmission lines:
When the length of an overhead transmission line is up to 50 km and the line voltage less
than 20 kV, its is known as short transmission line. Due to smaller length and lower voltage,
the capacitance effects are small and hence are neglected. Thus resistance and inductance
are the major parameters considered for these lines.
2. Medium electric transmission lines:
These lines are 50 km to 150 km and the range of voltage is 20 kV to 100 kV. Due to
sufficient length and voltage of the line , the capacitive effects are not neglected.

3. Long electric transmission lines:

The lines are more than 150 km in length and carry voltage higher than 100 kV.

Parameters of a transmission line:

1. Resistance in transmission lines :
Aluminum Conductors Steel Reinforced (ACSR) are used for transmission of power over
long distance. The acceptable limits of current density for aluminium is around 95 A in a
conductor of 1 cm diameter. In case of copper it is 160 A in a 1 cm diameter conductor.
Thus size of a conductor for a transmission line is given by

Diameter of the conductor = (Current to

be carried / 95) ½ cm
As aluminum has got low tensile strength therefore steel cored (ACSR) conductor are used.

2. Inductance in transmission lines:

Inductance of a phase single circuit overhead line is given by

L = u / 2 π (1/4 + log S/r) henry/ meter

0 e

u0= permeability of air = 4 π x 10 -7 henry/ meter

S = Deq = 3 √(D D D ) ab bc ca
Deq is equivalent equilateral spacing between 3 conductors a, b and c. Dca, Dbc and Dca are
distances between conductors a, b and c.
r = radius of the conductor.

3. Capacitance in transmission lines:

Capacitance of a three phase line CA is given by

C = 2π ε / S, Farads per meter, phase to

A 0

log S/R neutral

e

ε0 = permittivity of free air (8.55 x 10-12 Farads/ meter)

where, S and r have same meaning as in the estimation of inductance

Objective Questions > Multiple Choice
Questions of Transmission and
Distribution (1-15):
1. Which of the following is not the transmission voltage in America ?
(A) 66 kV
(B) l32kV
(C) 264 kV
(D) 400 kV

Get Answer

2. Which of the following is usually not the generating voltage ?

(A) 6.6 kV
(B) 9.9 kV
(C) 11kV
(D) 13.2 kV.

Get Answer

3. Boosters are basically

(A) inductors
(B) capacitors
(C) transformers
(D) synchronous motors.

Get Answer

4. Which of the following is not the distribution system normally used

(A) 3 phase-4 wire
(B) 3 phase-3 wire
(C) Single phase - 3 wire
(D) Single phase -4 wire.

Get Answer

5. Conductors for high voltage transmission lines are suspended from towers
(A) to reduce clearance from ground
(B) to increase clearance from ground
(C) to reduce wind and snow loads
(D) to take care of extension in length during summer.

Get Answer

6. Transmission efficiency increases as

(A) voltage and power factor both increase
(B) voltage and power factor both decrease
(C) voltage increases but power factor decreases
(D) voltage decreases but power factor increases.

Get Answer

7. With same maximum voltage to earth, which ac system (with p.f. 0.8) will require more
copper as compared to dc 2 wire system
(A) single phase. 2 wire (mid point earthed)
(B) single phase. 3 wire (neutral=1/2 outer)
(C) three phase three wire
(D) three phase-four wire (neutral = outer).

Get Answer
8. When alternating current passes through a conductor
(A) it remains uniformly distributed throughout the section of conductor
(B) portion of conductor near the surface carries more current as compared to the core
(C) portion of conductor near the surface carries less current as compared to the core
(D) entire current passes through the core of the conductor.

Get Answer

9. The fact that a conductor carries more current on the surface as compared to core, is
known as
(A) skin effect
(B) corona
(C) permeability
(D) unsymmetrical fault.

Get Answer

10. The effective resistance of a conductor will be the same as ohmic resistance when
(A) current is in true sine wave form
(B) voltage is low
(C) power factor is unity
(D) Current is uniformly distributed in the conductor cross-section.

Get Answer

11. Skin effect results in

(A) reduced effective resistance but increased effective internal reactance of the conductor
(B) increased effective resistance but reduced effective internal reactance of. the conductor
(C) reduced effective resistance as well as effective internal reactance
(D) increased effective resistance as well as effective internal reactance.
Get Answer

12. Skin effect depends on

(A) size of the conductor
(B) frequency of the current
(C) resistivity of the conductor material
(D) all of the above.

Get Answer

13. The skin effect of a conductor will reduce as the

(A) diameter increases
(B) frequency increases
(C) permeability of conductor material increases
(D) resistivity of conductor material increases.

Get Answer

14. Skin effect is proportional to

(A) diameter of conductor
(B) (diameter of conductor)1/2
(C) (diameter of conductor )2
(D) (diameter of conductor )2.

Get Answer

15. In overhead transmission lines the effect of capacitance can be neglected when the
length of line is less than
(A) 200 km
(B) 160 km
(C) 100 km
(D) 80 km.

Get Answer

Get all answers at once

1.C ----- 2.B ----- 3.C ----- 4.D ----- 5.B ----- 6.A ----- 7.D ----- 8.B -----9.A -----10.D -----11.B --
--- 12.D -----13.D -----14.C ----- 15.D

16. For constant voltage transmission the voltage drop is compensated by installing
(A) synchronous motors
(B) capacitors
(C) inductors
(D) all of the above.

Get Answer

17. The disadvantage of constant voltage transmission is

(A) short circuit current of the system is increased
(B) load power factor in heavy loads
(C) large conductor area is required for same power transmission
(D) air of the above.

Get Answer

18. The surge impedance for over head line is taken as

(A) 10-20 ohms
(B) 50-60 ohms
(C) 100-200 ohms
(D) 1000-2000 ohms.
Get Answer

19. Pin insulators are normally used up to voltage of about

(A)100kV
(B) 66 kV
(C) 33 kV
(D) 25 kV.

Get Answer

20. Strain type insulator arc used where the conductors arc
(A) dead ended
(B) at intermediate anchor towers
(C) any of the above
(D) none of the above.

Get Answer

21. For 66 kV lines the number of insulator discs used are

(A) 3
(B) 5
(C) 8
(D) 12.

Get Answer

22. Ten discs usually suggest that the transmission line voltage is
(A) 11 kV
(B) 33 kV
(C) 66 kV
(D) 132 kV.

Get Answer

23. The effect of corona is

(A) increased energy loss
(B) increased reactance
(C) increased inductance
(D) all of the above.

Get Answer

24. Corona usually occurs when the electrostatic stress in the air around the conductor
succeeds
(A) 30 kV (maximum value)/cm
(B) 22 kV (maximum value)/cm
(C) 11 kV (rms value)/cm
(D) 6.6 kv (rms value)/cm.

Get Answer

25. Corona effect can be detected by

(A) hissing sound
(B) faint luminous flow of bluish color
(C) presence of ozone detected by odor
(D) all of the above.

Get Answer
26. The current drawn by the line due to corona losses is
(A) sinusoidal
(B) square
(C) non-sinusoidal

Get Answer

27. Presence of ozone as a result of corona is harmful because

(A) it gives bad odor
(B) it corrodes the material
(C) it transfers energy to the ground
(D) reduces power factor.

Get Answer

28. Between two supports, due to sag the conductor takes the form of
(A) catenary
(B) triangle
(C) ellipse
(D) semi-circle.

Get Answer

29. The inductance of a single phase two wire line is given by (D is the distance
between conductors and 2v is the diameter of conductor)
(A) 0.4 loge (D/r) mH/km
(B) 0.55 loge (D/r) mH/km
(C) 0.4 loge (r/D) mH/km
(D) 0.55 loge (r/D) mH/km.
Get Answer

30. The effect of ice deposition on conductor is

(A) increased skin effect
(B) reduced corona losses
(C) increased weight
(D) reduced sag.

Get Answer

Get all answers at once

16.A ----- 17.A ----- 18.C ----- 19.D ----- 20.C ----- 21.B ----- 22.D ----- 23.A -----24.A -----
25.D ----- 26.C ----- 27.B -----28.A -----29.A ----- 30.C

Multiple Choice Questions of Transmission

and Distribution (31-45):
31. The effect of wind pressure is more predominant on
(A) transmission lines
(B) neutral wires
(C) insulator
(D) supporting towers.

Get Answer

32. Which of the following statement is correct ?

(A) Wind pressure reduces corona effects
(B) Ice on conductors improves power factor
(C) Wind pressure is taken to act in a direction at right angles to that for ice
(D) Wind pressure and ice on conductors together improve regulation of power transmitted.
Get Answer

33. Which of the following statements is incorrect ?

(A) As the temperature rises the tension in the transmission line decreases
(B) As temperature rises the sag in transmission lines reduces
(C) Tension and sag in transmission lines are complementary to each other.

Get Answer

34. Wooden poles for supporting transmission lines are used for voltages up to
(A) 440 V
(B)11 kV
(C) 22 kV
(D) 66 kV.

Get Answer

35. If K is the volume of cable conductor material required to transmit power, then for the
transmission of the same power, the volume of cable conductor required for single phase 2
wise AC system is
(A) 2k
(B) k cosφ
(C) k/ cos2φ
(D) 2k/ cos2p

Get Answer

36. Maximum permissible span for wooden poles is

(A) 10 meter
(B) 20 meters
(C) 60 meters
(D) 200 meters.

Get Answer

37. When transformers or switchgears are to be installed in a transmission line, the

poles used are
(A) I type
(B) J type
(C) H type
(D) L type.

Get Answer

38. For improving life, steel poles are galvanized. Galvanizing is the process of applying
a layer of
(A) paint
(B) varnish
(C) tar coal
(D) zinc.

Get Answer

39. The disadvantage of transmission lines as compared to cables is

(A) exposure to lightening
(B) exposure to atmospheric hazards like smoke, ice, etc.
(C) inductive interference between power and communication circuits
(D) all of the above.

Get Answer
40. ACSR conductor implies
(A) All conductors surface treated and realigned
(B) Aluminum conductor steel reinforced
(C) Anode current sinusoidally run
(D) Anodized Core Smooth Run.

Get Answer

41. The surge resistance of transmission lines is about

(A) 50 ohms
(B) 100 ohms
(C) 250 ohms
(D) 500 ohms.

Get Answer

42. During storm the live conductor of public electric supply breaks down and touches
the earth. The consequences will be
(A) supply voltage will drop
(B) supply voltage will increase
(C) current will flow to earth
(D) no current will flow in the conductor.

Get Answer

43. In transmission system a feeder feeds power to

(A) service mains
(B) generating stations
(C) distributors
(D) all of the above.
Get Answer

44. For transmission lines the standing wave ratio is the ratio of
(A) maximum voltage to minimum voltage
(B) maximum current to minimum voltage
(C) peak voltage to rms voltage
(D) maximum reactance to minimum reactance.

Get Answer

45. In a transmission line following arc the distributed constants

(A) resistance and inductance only
(B) resistance, inductance and capacitance
(C) resistance, inductance, capacitance and short conductance.

Get Answer

Get all answers at once

31.D ----- 32.C ----- 33.C ----- 34.C ----- 35.D ----- 36.C ----- 37.C ----- 38.D ----- 39.D -----
40.B -----41.D ----- 42.C -----43.C -----44.A ----- 45.C

46. The bundling of conductors is done primarily to

(A) reduce reactance
(B) increase reactance
(C) increase ratio interference
(D) reduce radio interference.

Get Answer

47. Which of the following regulation is considered to be the best

(A) 2%
(B) 30%
(C)70%
(D) 98%.

Get Answer

48. The characteristic impedance of a transmission line depends upon

(A) shape of the conductor
(B) surface treatment of the conductors
(C) conductivity of the material
(D) geometrical configuration. of the conductors.

Get Answer

49. For a distortion-less transmission line (G = shunt conductance between two wires)
(A) R/L = G/C
(B) RL=GC
(C) RG=LC
(D)RLGC=0

Get Answer

50. Guard ring transmission line

(A) improves power factor
(B) reduces earth capacitance of the lowest unit
(C) reduces transmission losses
(D) improves regulation.

Get Answer
51. When the power is to be transmitted over a distance of 500 km, the transmission
voltage should be in the range
(A) 33 kV - 66 kV
(B) 66 kV - 100 kV
(C) 110 kV - 150 kV
(D) 150kV - 220kV.

Get Answer

52. A relay used on long transmission lines is

(A) mho's relay
(B) reactance relay
(C) impedance relay
(D) no relay is used.

Get Answer

53. Total load transmitted through a 3 phase transmission line is 10,000 kW at 0.8
power factor lagging. The I2R losses are 900 kW. The efficiency of transmission line is
(A) 60%
(B) 90%
(C) 95%
(D) 99%.

Get Answer

54. Litz wires are used for intermediate frequencies.to overcome

(A) corona effect
(B) skin effect
(C) radio interference
(D) all of the above.

Get Answer

55. In order to reduce skin effect at UHF

(A) conductors are painted
(B) conductors are anodized
(C) copper lubes with silver plating are used
(D) copper rods with silver plating are used.

Get Answer

56. Shunt capacitance is usually neglected in the analysis of

(A) Short transmission lines
(B) Medium transmission lines
(C) Long transmission lines
(D) Medium as well as long transmission lines.

Get Answer

57. The chances of corona are maximum during

(A) summer heat
(B) winter
(C) dry weather
(D) humid weather.

Get Answer

58. The power transmitted will be maximum when

(A) Sending end voltage is more
(B) Receiving end voltage is more
(C) Reactance is high
(D) Corona losses are least.

Get Answer

59. Neglecting losses in a transmission system, if the voltage is doubled, for the same
power transmission, the weight of conductor material required will be
(A) four times
(B) double
(C) half
(D) one fourth.

Get Answer

60. When two conductors each of radius r are at a distance D, the capacitance between
the two is proportional to
(A) loge (D/r)
(B) loge (r/D)
(C) 1/loge (D/r)
(D) 1/loge (r/D).