THE INTERTESTAMENTAL IMPACT:

THE MACCABEE REVOLT AND THE POLITICAL CLIMATE OF PALESTINE IN THE FIRST CENTURY

SEAN HADLEY

SEANHADLEY@OUTLOOK.COM
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2

BREAKING A NATION: RELIGIOUS PERSECUTION TAKES HOLD ------------------------------------------ 2

TAKING IT BACK: FIGHTING FOR RELIGIOUS FREEDOM --------------------------------------------------- 3

RELIGIOUS POLITICS AND AN INDEPENDENT ISRAEL ------------------------------------------------------ 5

HASMONEAN REFORM: THE UPS AND DOWNS -------------------------------------------------------------- 5

HELLENISTIC INFLUENCE UNDER HASMONEAN RULE ----------------------------------------------------- 6

FORCED CIRCUMCISION AND ITS NEW TESTAMENT IMPACT --------------------------------------------- 7

CONCLUSION ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9

BIBLIOGRAPHY ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------10
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INTRODUCTION

As with all eras, during the time that Jesus Christ ministered in Israel, political and

religious ambitions were constantly at odds with anyone who interfered with the status quo.

Preserving the order of things was prominent in Jesus’ day, as evidenced by Herod’s attempt

to kill Him and the frequent traps set for Him the Jewish leaders of the day. Reading the

Gospels paints a picture of religious and political leaders who feared the very people they

ruled, diplomats and teachers who were constantly oscillating back and forth between

personal ambitions and the demands of the multitude. The tensions that plagued the people in

Jesus’ time had roots that stretched back to the Intertestamental period that began afte r the

Jewish exile came to an end. The events that unfolded in the area of Palestine had a profound

effect of te heirarchical relationships that existed between the Jewish people and the elite

among them, Jewish and Gentile in nature, which also affected the minsitry of Jesus. The

radical spiritual reform that Jesus taught struck fear in those who had worked hard to maintain

their positions of power that their forebears had instituted in times past. The foundation laid

by the leaders during the Intertestamental period would serve as the shifting sands that the

structure in Palestine would be built upon.

BREAKING A NATION: RELIGIOUS PERSECUTION TAKES HOLD

Needing to unite his empire, Alexander the Great went to great lengths to create a

sense of brotherhood among his subjects. Relocating people groups so that would intermarry,

introducing conquered Persians into his army, founding cities in his own honor, and

promoting Greek customs and language were all methods used by Alexander to harmonize his
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people.1 While this worked as a whole, the Jews proved to be strongly resistant to such

attempts at integration. Alexander’s son, Antiochus IV, had to put an end to rebellions in

Palestine and as a result he forced sacrifices to the Greek gods upon the Jewish people and he

descrated the temple. I Maccabees chapter one details the demands of Antiochus on the

Jewish people:

Moreover king Antiochus wrote to his whole kingdom, that all should be one people,
And every one should leave his laws: so all the heathen agreed according to the
commandment of the king. Yea, many also of the Israelites consented to his religion,
and sacrificed unto idols, and profaned the sabbath. For the king had sent letters by
messengers unto Jerusalem and the cities of Juda that they should follow the strange
laws of the land, And forbid burnt offerings, and sacrifice, and drink offerings, in the
temple; and that they should profane the sabbaths and festival days: And pollute the
sanctuary and holy people: Set up altars, and groves, and chapels of idols, and
sacrifice swine's flesh, and unclean beasts: That they should also leave their children
uncircumcised, and make their souls abominable with all manner of uncleanness and
profanation: To the end they might forget the law, and change all the ordinances. And
whosoever would not do according to the commandment of the king, he said, he
should die.2

The Jewish people faced a persecution that threatened to wipe out their culture and their

heritage as the chosen people of God under Greek rule. However, just as the Lord preserved a

remnant of “7,000 in Israel, all the knees that have not boed to Baal,” a small group of rebels

would rebel against the Greek Empire and change the course of relgious and political life for

Israel thereafter.3

TAKING IT BACK: FIGHTING FOR RELIGIOUS FREEDOM

Of the most important events during this time, the Maccabean revolt had the greatest

hand in establishing a solid political and religious structure for the small nation of Jews.

Following the death of Alexander the Great, civil war erupted within the Greek Empire,

1
Stevenson n.d.
2
1 Macc. 1:41-52
3
1 Kings 19:18 (NAS)
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resulting in a kingdom to the North governed by the Seleucid rulers and a kingdom to the

South governed by the Ptolemaic rulers.4 With Judah located between the two warring States,

turmoil engulfed the little nation as it was conquered and reconquered by the various kings

seeking to build their empire. After the Seleucids conquered Eygpt, war raised its head again

with the death of Antiochus IV. Two successors, Lysias and Phillip, divided the kingdom for

a time.5 After two previously failed rebellions, the Jews saw their opportunity to retake their

land. Under the guidance of Judas Maccabee, the son of a preist who had begun a small

rebellion in the north of the country, the Jews launched several successful campaigns against

the Seleucids and eventually took Jerusalem.6 Ultimately, Lysias sought to quell the Jewish

rebellion and he led his army into Jerusalem without much resistance, killing Judas’ brother

Eleazar at Beth Zechariah.

At the same time, Phillip was marching towards Eygpt to settle the issue of Antiochus’

successor. This caused Lysias to make a hasty withdrawal from Jerusalem. Lysias agreed to

give the Jews religious freedom in exchange for a peace accord.7 However, probably in an

attempt to retain some semblance of control, Lysias appointed the new High Priest. His choice

was Alcimus, a Hellenistic Jew, who was accepted at first because he belonged to the family

of Aaron. Alcimus did not remain in favor long, as he sought to Hellenize the Jewish people

and Judas Maccabee expelled him from the land after only two years.8 While the politically

chosen High Priest did not hold office for long, the effects of Lysias’ actions would ripple

throughout the rest of Israel’s history continuing to be a factor eventually under Roman rule.

4
Stevenson n.d.
5
Ibid.
6
Ibid.
7
Ibid.
8
Ibid.
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RELIGIOUS POLITICS AND AN INDEPENDENT ISRAEL

As the Maccabean revolt took its toll on the nation of Israel, and on the various

empires vying for control of the region, an end to the rebellion was seen in the rise to power

of the only remaining sibling of Judas Maccabee, Simon. It was Simon who was finally able

to achieve what his brothers had so fervently fought for: independence. In a political alliance

with Syria, Simon began the dynastic rule of the Hasmonean kings recognized first by Syria’s

king Demetrius II.9 The significance of the appearance of the Hasmonean line cannot be

overstated:

These people, through Josephus’ recounting of their lives, play a significant role in
helping us to understand how the high priesthood was viewed in the years leading up
to the coming of Christ, and their relation to the emerging religious sects in Israel, i.e.
the Pharisees, the Sadducees, etc. further enlightens us as to the political, spiritual
climate in Israel at that time.10

It was during this time that the effects of Lysias’ previous actions began to take root. Once

Simon’s brother Jonathan was dead, the role of both king and High Priest fell to Simon. His

son, John Hyrcanus followed in his footsteps, taking up the dual role as Simon had.11 Under

Hyrcanus, the conquest and forced conversion of the Idumeans who lived in southern Israel.

This conversion, conducted in a manner forbidden in Jewish law, would produce significant

figures as rulers of Israel including Herod the Great.12 This confusion of the political leader

and the religious leader of Israel brought about many changes in Israel, such as the rise of the

Sadducees under Hyrcanus’ rule.13

HASMONEAN REFORM: THE UPS AND DOWNS

9
Ibid.
10
Herrick 1998, I, B.1
11
Wein n.d.
12
Wein n.d.; Herrick 1998
13
Wein n.d.
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Of course, the period of Hasmonean rule was so influential because of several factors.

Beginning with the Maccabees, religious reform was prominent under the Hasmoneans.14 The

religious reforms took on many different aspects. For example, the incident that set off the

Maccabean rebellion was the refusal of Judas Maccabee’s father, Matthias, to offer a sacrifice

to a pagan god. Matthias, the priest of the village, instead killed the Jewish man who offered

to take his place along with the Seleucid officers who were there to enforce the pagan ritual.15

Such violent and extreme reactions to pagan practices were common during the Maccabean

revolt, further demonstrating the difficulties in Hellenizing the Jewish population.16 Such a

focus on religious reform proved to be both beneficial and detrimental. While the culture of

Israel and the traditions of the people were preserved through such resistance to outside

influences, the inward focus on religion also gave rise to divisions within Jewish community.

Lee I. Levine points out that, “the emergence of Jewish sects - Pharisees, Sadducees, and

Essenes (as well as the Qumran sect) - each with its own particular religious agenda, is a

further indication of a more concerted Jewish emphasis at this time, at least within certain

circles.”17 As the politics and religious traditions of Israel became intermingled during the

Hasmonean era, the issue was further complicated by the rise to power of religious sects that

were divided over key theological issues.

HELLENISTIC INFLUENCE UNDER HASMONEAN RULE

It is significant to note that the mixing of religious and political office could certainly

have come from some Hellenistic influences. Evidence of this of this begins with John

14
Levine 1997
15
Stevenson n.d.
16
Levine 1997
17
Ibid.
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Hyrcanus, who adopted the Greek name Hyrcanus.18 The subsequent rulers did the same,

adding Greek names to their Hebrew names. More evidence of this kind of influence can be

seen through various events that took place within the court:

Hellenization in the Hasmonean court is likewise reflected by the hiring of foreign

mercenaries and, more poignantly, by the assumption of royalty by Aristobulus and
Alexander Jannaeus. Even more telling in this regard is the sole rule of a queen, as
was the case with Salome Alexandra. This smooth and unchallenged succession was
very likely facilitated by contemporary Ptolemaic practice.19

Such a mingling of cultures was likely something that proved favorable to the “priestly

supporters of the Hasmonean dynasty:” the Sadducees.20

FORCED CIRCUMCISION AND ITS NEW TESTAMENT IMPACT

The confused concept of a High Priest/King were demonstrated thoroughly in the

forced conversion of the Idumeans under John Hyrcanus. After conquering the Idumean

people in Southern Israel, Hyrcanus forced them to convert to Judaism which demanded

circumcision. Hyrcanus was not the only Hasmonean ruler to do so, “Judas Aristobulus I

(104-103 BCE), did the same to the Itureans, an Arab tribe settled in Lebanon, the Golan, and

the Galilee, and Aristobulus's successor, Alexander Janneus, seems to have continued the

practice.”21 The precedent for such an act has roots in the early days of the Maccabean revolt.

In his essay, “Forced Circumcision and the Shifting Role of Gentiles in Hasmonean

Ideology,” Steven Weitzman examines 1 Maccabees against the writing of Josephus and

Ptolemy to determine the nature of these violent episodes. While not wanting to reproduce

Weitzman’s work, the summary of his findings are very telling:

18
Ibid.
19
Ibid.
20
Lea and Black 2003, 20
21
Weitzman 1999
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[…] while Mattathias had imposed circumcision on Jews, Hyrcanus and his successors
extended this practice to Gentiles under their control. What impelled this adaptation, I
am suggesting, was the tension between the Hasmoneans' increased reliance on
Gentiles and those rulers' status as heirs to the Maccabean Revolt. The latter was
crucial to Hasmonean legitimacy in the eyes of Jews, but the anti-Gentile policies
required to sustain Hasmonean legitimacy also had the effect of limiting the supply of
human capital available to the state. Turning to local Gentiles and foreign mercenaries
was an improvised solution to the human resource problem, but it eroded the
Hasmoneans' legitimacy in ruling Jews. The forced circumcision of Gentiles can be
read as an attempt to overcome this impasse, disguising the absorption of local non-
Jews as a continuation of the Maccabean drive to retake the land for Judaism. […] It
was precisely the connotation of anti-Gentile zeal inherent in this practice that
explains why Hyrcanus and Aristobulus later adapted it to mask their attempt to draw
Idumeans and Itureans into the Hasmonean state. The forced circumcision reports may
represent a distorted account of history, masking Idumean and Iturean complicity or
simplifying a complex process of cultural coalescence. The evidence indicates that
these reports do preserve something authentically Hasmonean, however, by revealing
how the dynasty tried to represent their reliance on local Gentiles to their Jewish
constituency.

Weitzman’s observation that the religious act of circumcising converts to Judaism had

become a political practice demonstrate the oscillation and confusion that resulted from the

Hasmonean rulers mixed office of High Priest and king. While other kings certainly used

religious traditions to their advantage, no other dynasty was so confident of combining the

two roles. The cultural impact was felt throughout from the time of John Hyrcanus to the

destruction of Jerusalem in 70 C.E.22 The New Testament church struggled with required

22
The societal reaction towards the politicization of circumcision is perhaps seen in the book of Judith. In his
essay, “Reclaiming Tradition: The Book of Judith and Hasmonean Politics,” Benedikt Eckhardt argues that
language seen in Judith is evidence that there was popular disagreement with the Hasmonean policy of forced
circumcision. He writes, “1 Maccabees clearly emphasizes genealogy as a constitutive element of Israelite
identity. The book of Judith now uses this very language for thirteen chapters—only to render it completely
ineffective in ch. 14. The conversion of Achior demonstrates that archaizing language cannot determine Jewish
identity. The use of this language in 1 Maccabees is delegitimized; the book of Judith questions the Hasmonean
way of defining the Judaism they advocate through this language. Israelite tradition, according to Judith, is not
represented by forced circumcision or genealogically restricted access to God’s holy people, but by Ruth the
Moabite and Achior the Ammonite, who, without being forced to do anything and without any constructed
kinship that might obscure the facts, joined the house of Israel, Ruth even playing a central role in the genealogy
of David. The integration of an Ammonite into the house of Israel is a further case of reclaiming biblical
tradition. In the fictive and ironical setting of the narration, it is possible to use the language of Hasmonean
propaganda apart from the meanings ascribed to it by the framework of legitimizing discourses. It is even
possible to use the same language and reach opposite conclusions. […] More important is the observation that
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circumcision, evidenced by Paul’s argument against it in his letter to the Galatians. The

implications suggest that the forced circumcision that became popular under the Hasmoneans

transferred over to the Christian Jewish community.

CONCLUSION

While forced circumcision is not mentioned in the Gospel accounts, the effects of

combining the political and religious offices in the Jewish community can still be seen. Jesus’

most vocal opponents were those who hailed from the religious elite, varying from Sadducee

to Pharisee to scribe. Constantly seeking to argue with Him, and often hoping to turn the

crowd against Him, the Jewish leaders of Jesus’ day struggled with the same sense of “need”

and “rule” that the Hasmoneans struggled with prior to their conquest by the Romans. The

political aims and religious abuses of the Jewish leaders undoubtedly came to a head during

the illegal and farcical trial against Jesus that eventually led to His crucifixion. The uneasy

alliance between politics and spirituality took its toll on the people and on those who were

leaders. It is evident that those who engaged in the intermingling of the two offices were not

trusted by the people, and they seemed to only see the people as tools towards their own

power. The long term effects of the Hasmonean kings did damage, not only to the offices they

corrupted, but also to the Jewish cultural identity. Had the destruction of the Temple in 70

C.E. not abruptly destroyed the power of the Sadducees and subsequently scattered the Jewish

people, it is unclear how much of the Hasmonean effect may have infiltrated the Church.

Judith reclaims biblical tradition and language by altering the scriptural recourses used by 1 Maccabees.” This
would perhaps be evidence of the type of disgruntled attitude found in the New Testament towards the religious
elite who held the power. Perhaps the politicization of religious offices had bothered the Jewish community for
some time before Jesus arrived on the scene.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Eckhardt, Benedikt. "Reclaiming Tradition: The Book of Judith and Hasmonean Politics."

Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha (Sage Publications) 18, no. 4 (2009):

243-263.

Herrick, Greg. Josephus’ Writings and Their Relation to the New Testament. Biblical Studies

Press. 1998. http://bible.org/article/josephus%E2%80%99-writings-and-their-relation-

new-testament (accessed July 15, 2010).

Lea, Thomas D., and David Alan Black. The New Testament: Its Background and Message.

Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2003.

Levine, Lee I. "Hasmonian Jesuralem: a Jewish city in a hellenistic orbit." Judaism: A

Quarterly Journal of Jewish Life and Thought (Academic OneFile) 46, no. 2 (1997):

140+.

Stevenson, John. The Intertestamental Period. n.d. http://www.angelfire.com/nt/theology/15-

400sy.html (accessed July 15, 2010).

Wein, Berel. The Hasmoneans. Edited by Yaakov Astor. n.d.

http://www.jewishhistory.org/the-hasmoneans/ (accessed July 16, 2010).

Weitzman, Steven. "Forced Circumcision and the Shifting Role of Gentiles in Hasmonean

Ideology." Harvard Theological Review 92, no. 1 (January 1999).