Kinetic Molecular Model of
Liquids and Solids
The different types of intermolecular forces are
the following:
Dispersion forces – these forces of
attraction result from temporary dipole
moments induced in ordinarily nonpolar
molecules. These forces are present between all
types of molecules due to the movement of
electrons.
Thus, dispersion forces may be the
weakest of intermolecular forces that can exist
between two molecules, but the larger the
atoms present, the stronger the dispersion
forces.
Dipole-dipole forces - are attractive forces
between polar molecules (molecules that
possess dipole moments). In polar molecules
the electrons are unevenly distributed because
some elements are more electronegative than
others. The partial negative side of one
molecule is attracted to the partial positive side
of another molecule.
This type of force is stronger than the
dispersion forces because polar molecules have
a permanent uneven distribution of electrons.
Hydrogen bond is a special type of dipole-
dipole interaction between the hydrogen atom
in a polar bond, such as N‒H, O‒H, or F‒H, and
an electronegative O, N, or F atom. Hydrogen
bonds between water molecules are particularly
strong.
Properties of Liquids and
Intermolecular Forces
Surface tension
is the measure of the elastic force in the surface
of a liquid. It is the amount of energy required
to stretch or increase the surface of a liquid by a
unit area.
Molecules within a liquid are pulled in
all directions by intermolecular forces.
Capillary action
is the tendency of a liquid to rise in narrow
tubes or be drawn into small openings such as
those between grains of a rock. Capillary action,
also known as capillarity, is a result of
intermolecular attraction between the liquid
and solid materials.
A thin film of water adheres to the wall
of the glass tube as water molecules are
attracted to atoms making up the glass (SiO2).
Surface tension causes the film of water to
contract and pulls the water up the tube.
Two types of forces are involved in capillary
action:
Cohesion is the intermolecular attraction
between like molecules (the liquid molecules).
Adhesion is an attraction between unlike
molecules (such as those in water and in the
particles that make up the glass tube).
Convex Meniscus: When cohesion forces are
greater than the adhesion forces of the liquid.
Ex: Mercury in a container
Concave Meniscus: When the adhesion forces
are greater than the forces of the liquid.
Ex: Distilled water in a silver vessel
Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s resistance
to flow. The greater the viscosity, the slower the
liquid flows.
The stronger its intermolecular forces,
the greater resistance to flow.
The larger the molecule, even if it is
nonpolar, the stronger the intermolecular forces
and the greater the viscosity compared to
nonpolar substances made up of small
molecules.
Viscosity decreases as temperature
increases.
Vapor Pressure
The pressure exerted by the gas in
equilibrium with a liquid in a closed container at
a given temperature.
The equilibrium vapor pressure is the
maximum vapor pressure of a liquid at a given
temperature and that it is constant at a constant
temperature.
Vapor pressure is independent of the
amount of liquid as well as the surface area of
the liquid in contact with the gas.
As the temperature increases, the vapor
pressure of water also increases.
The stronger these intermolecular
forces are, the greater the amount of energy
needed to break them.
Molar heat of vaporization (ΔHvap)
is the energy required to vaporize 1
mole of a liquid at a given temperature. H is the
symbol for enthalpy, which means heat content
at a given standard condition.
The heat of vaporization may be considered a
measure of the strength of intermolecular
forces in a liquid. If the intermolecular attraction
is strong, it takes a lot of energy to free the
molecules from the liquid phase and the heat of
vaporization will be high.
Boiling Point
is the temperature at which the liquid converts
into a gas.
The boiling point is the temperature at which
the vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to the
external pressure.
The normal boiling point is the temperature at
which the liquid converts to a gas when the
external pressure is 1 atm.
The boiling point is related to molar
heat of vaporization: the higher ΔHvap , the
higher the boiling point.
The Unique Properties of Water
1. Water is a good solvent.
its ability to dissolve a large
variety of chemical substances
2. Water has a high specific heat.
Water can absorb a large
amount of heat even if its temperature
rises only slightly.
3. The boiling point of water unusually
high.
The strong intermolecular
forces in water allow it to be a liquid at
a large range of temperatures.
4. Solid water is less dense, and in fact
floats on liquid water.
When solid water forms, the
hydrogen bonds result in a very open
structure with unoccupied spaces,
causing the solid to occupy a larger
 volume than the liquid. This makes ice
less dense than liquid water, causing ice
to float on water.
Intermolecular Forces of
Liquids and Solids; Solids and
their Properties
Solids can be categorized into two
groups: the crystalline solids and the
amorphous solids. The differences in properties
of these two groups of solids arise from the
presence or absence of long range order of
arrangements of the particles in the solid.
Crystalline solids are arranged in fixed
geometric patterns or lattices. Examples of
crystalline solids are ice and sodium chloride
(NaCl), copper sulfate (CuSO4), diamond,
graphite, and sugar (C12H22O11).
The ordered arrangement of their units
maximizes the space they occupy and are
essentially incompressible.
Amorphous solids have a random
orientation of particles. Examples of amorphous
solids are glass, plastic, coal, and rubber.
They are considered super-cooled
liquids where molecules are arranged in a
random manner similar to the liquid state.
The structures of crystalline solids are
built from repeating units called crystal lattices.
The surroundings of particles in the structure
are uniform, and the attractive forces
experienced by the particles are of similar types
and strength. These attractive forces are broken
by the same amount of energy, and thus,
crystals become liquids at a specific
temperature (i.e. the melting point). At this
temperature, physical properties of the
crystalline solids change sharply.
Amorphous solids soften gradually
when they are heated. They tend to melt over a
wide range of temperature. This behavior is a
result of the variation in the arrangement of
particles in their structures, causing some parts
of the solid to melt ahead of other parts.
The Four Types of Crystals
METALLIC CRYSTALS
-its unit particles are atoms
-the forces between particles is metallic bonds
-soft to very hard, low to very high melting
point, excellent thermal and electrical
conduction, malleable and ductile.
Example: All metallic elements – for example,
Cu, Fe, Al, and Pt.
IONIC CRYSTALS
-its unit particles are cations and anions
-the forces between particles is electrostatic
attractions
-hard and brittle, high melting point, poor
thermal and electrical conduction
Example: Typical salts – for example, NaCl,
Ca(NO3)2
MOLECULAR CRYSTALS
-its unit particles are atoms or molecules
-the forces between particles is London
dispersion forces, dipole-dipole forces,
hydrogen bonds.
-fairly soft, low to moderately high melting
point, poor thermal and electrical
conduction
Example: Argon, Methane, Sucrose, and Dry
Ice.

COVALENT NETWORK CRYSTALS

-its unit particles are atoms connected in a

network of covalent bonds.
-the force between particles is covalent
bonds.
-very hard, very high melting point, often
poor thermal and electrical conduction.
Example: Diamond and Quartz