Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The History of Physical Education Book C
The History of Physical Education Book C
By Murray G. Phillips
And
the 19th century, which has examined the history of physical education
(Ainsworth, 1930; Hartwell, 1886, 1905; Leonard, 1905, 1915, 1923; Rice,
1926, Schwendener, 1942). Nancy Struna has argued that the growth in the
and universities. She also notes that the writers of these early history
treatises had little or no formal training in history; they were not trained
history. These writers worked without support from their own departments,
areas, and did not have access to formal associations for like minded
perhaps it is not surprising that: ‘The books on history from this period were
descriptive chronicles’ in which ‘events unfolded; connections and
the late 1950s through to the 1980s. The field was marked by the emergence
world histories of physical education were Van Dalen et al., (1953) A World
were the most comprehensive surveys of physical education from the ancient
societies through the Middle Ages, to modern Europe, the United States and
modern and modern societies. Not surprisingly, given their pioneering status
Peter McIntosh’s (1952; 1962; 1963; 1971, and 1981) and Earl Zeigler’s
(1973; 1975; 1979; 1988) work, was its diversification to include the
Education and Sport argues: ‘the term “sport” is gaining broad recognition
and use as an area of intensified study, research, and practice’ to the point
where ‘some authorities now conceive of the term “sport” as being separate,
education but also encompassed historical aspects of sport, sport was now
education.
While Dixon, McIntosh, Van Dalen and Zeigler were writing the early
his former doctoral student, Marvin Eyler and Zeigler initiated the History of
1967 and the International Association for the History of Physical Education
In many countries in the 1970s and 1980s, the history of sport sections broke
history societies such as the North American Society for Sport History
(NASSH) in 1972 and the Australian Society for Sport History (ASSH) in
also developed in Britain, Europe and Asia attracted a broader clientele than
those involved in physical education departments including historians
Council for Physical Education, Dance and Recreation devoted to the history
of physical education and they merged with interested social, economic and
two edited collections from the late 1970s, to form the Australian Society for
Sport History. The implication of societies like NASSH and ASSH, as well
education. Struna (1997: 158) summarized the long term effect: ‘the history
While Roland Naul (1990) has argued that there has been a renaissance in
this trend (Kirk, 1998a). Whereas the 1970s and 1980s was a period that not
Wright, E.P (1969)), there has been diminishing postgraduate work and few
own right, pale into insignificance in terms of the sheer bulk of work
was most likely related to two issues. Firstly, there were structural,
movement studies in Australia came many years after, and derived its roots
from, the physical education profession’ (Abernathy, 1996: 24). The history
Secondly, and working at precisely the same time, the field of sport history
renamed schools were in the broader field of sport history rather the history
of physical education. At this point physical educationalists had lost the
battle over defining the focus of historical pursuits (Huggins, 2001). These
sport historians, with their sport history societies and specialist national and
in the history of physical education. That interest has not been reinvigorated
Core Concepts
section is on what we consider the single most crucial core term. That core
concept is actually the term ‘physical education’. How you define physical
primitive man, the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, peoples of the Middle
the works of historians that physical education, like all human endeavours,
activity that Siedentop (1972: 10) believes ‘Man [sic] as a species has
always been engaged in’ and which Van Dalen and Bennett (1971) contend
assumed that one never existed without the other. As Siedentop (1972: 10)
[sic] gained many of the same values that are claimed for the physical
When used in this sense, the concept of physical education embraces all the
numerous and diverse names, titles and viewpoints under its own banner.
Assertions such as these do little other than testify to the ambivalence of the
brawn serves as the only rationale for defining physical education. Since
contested the views that promote sport and physical education as a timeless
Greek word physika, meaning ‘material’ and the Latin, educare, again,
education, there is certainly evidence that the basic motif underlying the
toward which both physical training and physical culture were predisposed
orientations.
These prevalent definitions of physical education are incredibly important
because they have shaped the historical field. By providing very few limits
most notably physical education at schools and sport in all its varieties:
Major Findings
While the accepted definitions have been all encompassing, it can not be
assumed that all historians have applied the nebulous concept of physical
physical education has several defining and differentiating features. The first
education start somewhere with one of the ancient societies ranging from the
Egyptians to the Greeks and finish with contemporary times featuring the
usually in the period of the nineteenth century that historians mark as the
1999; Fletcher 1984; McIntosh, 1952; Smith, 1974), Europe (Kruger and
1923; Lockhart and Spears, 1972; Rice, 1926; Schwendener, 1942; Zeigler,
its temporal origins vary between historians. Van Dalen and Bennett’s (1971)
Sport starts his edited volume with the ancient Sumerians, while McIntosh et
Not all historical periods are treated equally by historians. Consider, for
example, the third edition of Mechikoff and Estes’ (2002) A History and
3000 years is given 13 pages, the 1000 year Greek civilization is discussed
over 27 pages, the 1000 year reign of the Romans is accorded 19 pages, the
Dark Ages that existed for 400 years is not covered at all, and the 600 years
remembered more intensely than others, while some are not remembered at
Mechikoff and Estes’s history highlights physical education rises during the
Romans and hits a nadir during the Dark Ages, only to be revived and
memory ‘is patterned in a highly structured manner that both shapes and
distorts what we actually come to mentally retain from the past (Zerubavel,
of:
Ancient Societies
Ancient Societies
As indicated in Mechikoff and Estes’ (2002) A History and Philosophy of
Sport and Physical Education the intensity of research and writing on the
early river civilizations of the Tigris, Euphrates and Nile is far less than that
of other historical periods, specifically the work carried out on the ancient
games and toreador sports), and military training (archery, boxing, chariot
cases these events were linked to religious rights, rituals and celebrations
(Van Dalen and Bennett, 1971; Howell and Howell in Zeigler, 1988;
nineteenth and twentieth century sport and physical education advocates and
Age are traced from the Iliad and the Odyssey. In these literary masterpieces,
the heroes Achilles and Odysseus represented ‘the man of action’ and ‘the
develop ‘the man of action’ as every male in Homeric Greece was destined
warfare that characterized the era (Van Dalen and Bennett, 1971). As Greece
conscientious citizens’ (Van Dalen and Bennett, 1971: 39). State regulated,
fitness and military skill with little emphasis placed on the arts, sciences,
and wrestling) were geared toward producing warriors. What is unique about
Spartan education is that young male and females shared similar educational
experiences. While girls did not live in public military barracks like the
society, a society noted for its art, literature and philosophy as well as its
pentathlon, running and wrestling with the ultimate goals of developing the
athletic events were part of the four great sport and religious festivals which
games began as simple athletic contests dedicated to Greek gods, but over
encompassing events for boys and men in running over different distances,
pentathlon, wrestling, races in armour, chariot races with horses and mules,
broadly, was to educate the mind and the body, to unite ‘the man of action’
with ‘the man of wisdom’, to produce a well integrated person. In the late
Athenian period, these ideals were distorted as the role of the palestra and
and Bennett (1971: 47) summarized the relevance of early Athenian sporting
The reverence held for the athletic ideals of the Greeks helps explain the
cultures, was noticeably different to the Greeks. Unlike the Greeks who were
philosophic thought, the Romans were ordered, practical and pragmatic, less
education and physical activities for the Romans took on different forms
than the Greeks. During the early years of the Republic (509 – 27 BC), Van
Dalen and Bennett (1971: 70) argue the purpose of physical education was
‘to develop strength of body, courage in battle, agility in arms and obedience
to commands’. At the Campus Martius, a large open area on the banks of the
Tiber River, under guidance from fathers, and at the military camps, young
male Romans were taught archery, ball games, fencing, javelin, horse riding,
jumping and running. While the Greeks valued participation for all round
development of the individual, the Romans were far more utilitarian with the
During the later Republic and Empire (27 BC – 476 AD), physical education
continued to remain important for military men and the growing band of
baths. In 33 BC there were 170 baths in Rome, 300 years later the city could
boast 856 such institutions. These baths were more like recreational centres
temperature, areas for ball playing and even shops, lounges, libraries, art
galleries and dining venues. It was here that Romans took their physical
and a number of ball games. Participants followed their exercise with a bath
philosopher and physician Claudius Galen who recognized the health giving
qualities of physical exercise. The baths were the venues that made the lives
bearable for male and female Romans who lived in an extremely crowded
city, over one million people in an area less than twelve miles square, under
Another dimension of the sporting lives of the Romans was their penchant
the influence of the Etruscans who loved chariot racing and participated in
armed combat between warriors, Romans took these activities to a new level
(Howell and Howell in Zeigler, 1988). Chariot racing and gladiator battles
were popular all over the Roman Empire but it was Rome that housed the
greatest of these facilities with the Circus Maximus and the Coliseum
horse events and boxing contests, while at the Colosseum 50,000 spectators
jockeys, grooms and stable police, while gladiators were trained to master a
were particularly gruesome affairs, costing both animal and human lives,
politicians, were the ‘bread and circuses’ that fulfilled the utilitarian service
pacifying and entertaining an idle Roman public during their ever growing
number of holidays. Chariot racing and the gladiatorial battles typified the
Estes (2002: 75-6) argue: ‘Aside from the warriors, the Romans grew into a
nation of spectators, not participants, who enjoyed watching slaves and
Following the collapse of Rome in A.D. 476, many institutions including the
unique form of popular spectator sports ceased. One institution that survived
was the Church (incorporating both the Papacy and Holy Roman Empire)
which reached its height in Europe in this period. Here, ‘the influence of the
even one’s private life’ (Mechikoff and Estes, 2002: 104). The prominence
education in this period, especially so, given the prominence of the Catholic
the body reflected theological beliefs. What is interesting here is the obvious
recognise and incorporate the works of Aristotle and Plato and as such, as
Copleston (1961) ascertains, were compelled to embrace specific attitudes
engage in physical training to glorify the body would contaminate the body,
which “housed” the soul, and would make the soul impure. The negative
attitude that Medieval Christians had toward the body was in no small part
Most early Christians held the body in contempt. Whilst it is certainly true
equally true that they were also in the minority. Despite the writings of
view during this period – and certainly one espoused by Frank Bottomley
(1979) – saw the human body as vile, corrupt and beyond redemption – a
view only enhanced by the spread of the bubonic plague across Europe
during the fourteenth century. The body became an ‘instrument of sin’ (Van
Dalen and Bennett, 1971: 90). Perhaps, it is not too surprising to note then
that the consensus among some medieval historians is that, with the
to avoid the pleasures of the flesh (Ballou, 1968; Bottomley, 1979; Carter,
1980, 1981, 1984; Cripps-Day, 1980; Henderson, 1947; Hoskins, 1958; Pole,
1958; Strutt, 1876). As Van Dalen and Bennett (1971: 90) state, in such an
environment ‘even the most worthy ideals of physical education could not
exist.’ This is not to say that physical education and sporting activities (not
including military activities) were entirely absent from the Middle Ages, but
it should certainly be noted that they were tolerated (grudgingly) more than
condoned.
This negative attitude towards sport did, however, as John Marshall Carter
(1981) highlights, change in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. During this
many nobles elected to become monks. Mechikoff and Estes (2002: 93)
illustrate how:
Secular habits such as hunting, falconry, and perhaps, even the combat
the church.
In addition to these sports – and with the permission of the local church
authority – ball games were also popular during the Middle Ages. Indeed, as
peasant serfs, the interest of the tradesmen and upper classes, their
difficult for the church to end its association with these games.
It did intervene, however, with the deterioration of the games into violent,
drunken, lewd affairs with a swift reminder of appropriate conduct and some
centred round the medieval tournaments also faced the Church’s wrath due
to the inherent carnage and brutality that were often present. Although it
should be noted that during the Crusades such condemnations were largely
absent.
that one can identify the beginnings of the Renaissance (circa 1300 – 1550).
Roman thought, the Church had to now compete with the literature,
philosophies and paganism of these two great ancient cultures. Here, new
subsequently set down the foundations for the development and evolution of
a new attitude towards both physical education and sport. Indeed, it can
change here was an increase in the importance attached and placed on the
body – Mechikoff and Estes (2002: 119) certainly seem to think so:
With the reading of the classic Greek and Roman philosophers,
Vittorino da Feltre was one of the first educators during the Renaissance to
physical education curricula was based. For two or more hours each day da
fencing, leaping, riding and running under the watchful gaze of teachers
ideals of body, mind, and spirit together for the first time in an attempt to
develop the ideal citizen. With Sparta as his model (and heavily influenced
by Plato), Petrus Paulus Vergerius, one of the first of the great Italian
humanists, provides another example of a leading educator of this period
very similar to educators of the Middle Ages (in that he saw the principal
function of physical education as helping to prepare one for the military), the
fact that he incorporated physical education into the education of the total
everyday life, education (whose benefits were evident among the upper
should, however, be stated quite clearly here, that this incorporation equated
to only a small part of the overall educational programme and ‘where it did
exist it was usually associated with the education of the wealthy’ (Mechikoff
and Estes, 2002: 112). Sport was not a part of college life in the new
modern universities such as Oxford and Cambridge – simply, the mind and
identification of hard work and industriousness with good work and prayers
Although the theology of the Reformation and that of the early Christian
monks were very different in their view of the value of the body, both
1981; Gerber, 1971; Hackensmith, 1966; Rice, Hutchinson, and Lee, 1969;
Mechikoff and Estes 2002; Schmidt, 1960; Van Dalen, Mitchell and Bennett,
occurred during both the Age of Science and the Enlightenment – and the
evolution of the notion that humans were able to both comprehend and
1
his teaching techniques and writings became the benchmark by which
aware that the majority of educational institutions did not value (or were
even aware) of the benefits of physical education and believed that the best
way to develop health was through his gymnastics program. At around this
never attain its object, which is perfect human culture’ (Froebel, 1887: 250).
In Germany, Sweden and Denmark the promotion of physical education
(confirming previous era’s beliefs in its primary purpose) was not so much
for its educational and health value, but rather for its military purposes.
applied to his own works), physical education was used to pursue German
national unity and freedom from French control. To Jahn, there was a direct
loss of German national pride. As a result he saw the need for a nationwide
who (as school inspector) publicly called for schools to accept gymnastics as
part of their curricula - and the birth of the German turnverein movement in
the spring of 1811. Due to its overtly political nature and in no small way to
its nationalistic stance, by 1820 a Prussian royal decree had been issued
banning all gymnastics and closing over one hundred gymnastic fields. Jahn
Between 1811 and 1819 it not only served as a catalyst for social change in
the German states, but also for the call for a unified democracy of these
same states. Buoyed by the ideals of independence and freedom from French
rule, the Turners practiced their gymnastics in order to be both mentally and
physically prepared to liberate their nation. Notwithstanding these
the career of Per Ling who established in Sweden the medical and scientific
psychology, first aid, health, history and philosophy, physiology, and sports
time. From a view in which the nature of health was deemed by those in the
medical profession as, ‘manifest in a balanced constitution (the body) and
temperament (the mind and spirit) there arose a situation whereby science
great deal of impetus in defining the role and scope of physical education.’
Simply, prevention was better than cure and in the doctors who attended
Anderson’s conference we are able to see ‘a beginning point for the body of
capacity to control, cure and restore health had not only earned society’s
education.
Great Britain until the Second World War. The reasons for this selection are
purely practical and functional: there is considerable material available on
have examined some eras and specific nations than others. We will leave it
of those eras and nations that have not been examined in great detail.
The importance of games as part of school life which had its origins in
and militarism, and interwoven in unique ways with class, gender and race.
While it is possible to identify similarities in systems of physical education,
each country developed specific forms that were moulded by distinct social,
the education system was the German mode advocated by Gutsmuths, Jahn
and their disciples. Gymnastics was introduced at the Round Hill School in
1825 and in the following year at Harvard by political exiles and former
routine callisthenics with little apparatus, was more limited with less official
support. Swedish immigrants were fewer in number than the Germans, they
came later to America, and their influence was minimal. Americans, rather
The British like many others employed specific European systems as well as
schools (Smith, 1974). The Public Schools, catering for wealthier sections of
and then the famous Martina Bergman (later Madame Bergman Osterberg).
women in physical education in Britain as was the case in the USA (Kirk,
of physical education did not significantly change until after the Second
World War when Swedish gymnastics lost favour as other forms of physical
Australians followed with interest the various reports, Acts and Royal
manuals, syllabi and books on physical training. Like the British, Australians
preferred the Swedish system, rather than the German model of gymnastics
adopted by the Americans. It was not until the publication of the ‘Grey’
different dimensions than the British system because physical education was
female physical educators (Kirk, 2000a) and the shortage of women teachers
but one thing the militarist lobby never achieved was compulsory military
physical education for two decades beyond the British experience and
about the removal of British forces from 1870, the imperialistic tendencies
of Asian countries and Russia, and with no standing army for defence -
introduced across the country in 1911. Under this scheme, boys between the
ages of 12 and 14 were provided with a mixture of marching, squad drill and
while Australia took the lead from Britain until the Second World War, the
Likewise the games ethic that originated in the United Kingdom took
underwent codification and it was in English Public Schools that the games
the preference for team games, in particular, and the perceived ability of
administrators who advocated the games ethic as they travelled to all parts of
the British Empire and the Americas (Mangan 1988, 1992, 1998).
The games cult, however, was not established with any sort of homogeneity
in the school systems of the Empire and the Americas. It was initially
the Second World War as the working class education system, without the
material resources in playing fields and teaching expertise in games, did not
games in elementary schools either side of the 20th century (Mangan and
Hickey, 2000). Similarly the games cult in Britain was gendered. For young
above; for women the experience was different. Public boarding schools for
their athletes with colours, cups and uniforms (McCrone 1987, 1998). Yet,
declared: ‘The grand aim of all muscular activity from an educational point
second half of the 19th century as exclusively male activities and grew into
massive industries that raised large amounts of revenue for their institutions
associated marketing and merchandising. Like the games ethic in Britain, the
Intramural sport was encouraged for women, under the mantra ‘a sport for
every girl and every girl in a sport’ (Mechikoff and Estes, 2002: 261-2), but
years.
Opposition to women’s competitive sport, emanating from both male
women’s sport during the 20th century. More opportunities were gradually
made available for school and college female athletes. Title IX of the
women, albeit with all the inherent problems of male sports in schools and
(college) sport never developed along the commodified lines of the USA
Influenced by the British educational system and the associated value system
leadership, courage and comradeship remained from the British games ethic,
but added to these traits were self-reliance and a form of rugged, frontier
cited in Kirk, 1998b: 137). This tailored games ethic was also gendered. For
boys at middle class private schools, team games ‘were from the beginning
women and girls as fragile, co-operative, loyal and dexterous’ (Kirk, 2000a:
60).
illustrates, the benefits attributed to games were never stagnant and altered
class boys, and to lesser extent girls, of the government schools, the
justifications for advocating games did not centre on preparing leaders for
government, the professions or the armed forces as it was for the middle
class children of the fee paying private schools. During World War One, the
emphasis for working class boys was on physical development through
games, and in the next decade participation centred on social and moral
1930s and 1940s games were advocated for both boys and girls to develop
gendered and class specific, shifted over time to accommodate larger social
identity.
Great Britain up until the Second World War is not representative of physical
education throughout the world, nor is it meant to be, but the theme that runs
physical education. As has been shown from the ancient civilizations to the
modern era, physical education has never been stagnant, varying between
struggle between those who have wanted to define, control and implement
Major Trends
assumptions that have guided some of these histories. The approach to this
section is stimulated by the debate over the last decade centring on the
is history a form of literature? Finally, and crucially, does history have its
rational and non-judgmental position. In this way, the objective historian can
directly infer meaning from voices of the past and the interpretation inherent
that still allows for human agency, intentionality and choice. Constructionist
A great deal of the histories of physical education from the earliest sources
in the late 19th century through to the new millennium have been written
that underpins their work and, finally, a distrust of any attempt to apply
from 1855-1930. The editors specifically point out that they did not alter
Hartwell, Fred. Eugene Leonard and G. Stanley Hall, are interspersed with
original documents about amateurism, anthropometry, athletics, basketball,
may examine directly the writer’s approach to his subject and the
stresses that ‘truthful meaning can be directly inferred from the primary
sources’ (Munslow, 1997: 20). Inferences gained from the evidence can be
and singular relics of the past, which are used by reconstructionist historians
ability to understand the intentionality of the author of the sources and the
1997).
Another feature of the majority of the histories written during the field’s
boom period from the 1950s to the 1980s, with the exception of McIntosh’s
following this seminal debate and the ‘cultural turn’ initiated by Hayden
White, Clifford Geertz and others from the 1970s (Bonnell and Hunt, 1999).
One reading of this situation, and the one we side with, is that physical
education historians assumed, like many other historians in other fields, that
there was a single, dominant and appropriate way of historical research. This
In this way, the objective historian directly inferred meaning from voices of
the past and the interpretation inherent in the sources (Munslow, 2000).
“where it has been, and how it got there.” By continuous, careful assessment
of “where and what we are at present,” the guideposts for the future should
prerequisite along the way to full understanding’. This rationale was most
likely associated with establishing the worth of history in the emerging field
that characterized other fields within sport studies, such as sociology and
pedagogy, at the same time. While the likes of Gerber and Van Dalen, did
not justify this approach, they were other prominent historians who did. As
avidly avoided because they threatened both the inferential qualities of the
history from one particular perspective. This typifies the approach of many
theoretical positions have attracted the ire of sport sociologists who have
‘The history of the world is but the biography of great men’. Carlyle’s ‘great
men’ theory of history postulated that ‘Universal History, the history of what
man has accomplished in this world is at bottom the History of the Great
Men who have worked here’ (Carlyle cited in Fulbrook, 2002: 122). Gerber
events and ideas which constitute the history of physical education can be
traced back to the individual men and women who helped to formulate them.
Insights into the patterns of physical education in the Western World can be
gained therefore from a study of the people who were primarily responsible
for proffering its ideas. The book contains biographical information about
the innovators and presents their most important and relevant theories …’.
included the Germans Guts Muths and Jahn, the Swedes including Ling and
his son Hjalmar, the Dane Nachtegall as well as other individuals from
readership for the book, a great deal of attention is given to individuals from
England, the Round Hill School (1823) and the Harvard Summer School of
This approach is very informative because she overtly states her philosophy
‘Great Men’ theory are as equally obvious as its assets. By placing so much
specific historical circumstances that not only produce these individuals but
also provide them with the power to act. What is often minimized in a series
limitations of the ‘Great Men’ theory of history: ‘There is, in short, a lot
historical development’.
sources and their subsequent newer editions. Some historians, however, have
Zeigler, who wrote both historical and philosophical treatises, argued that
history is written in the present with little chance of avoiding the mood of
process was on primary sources with Zeigler (1988: 248), arguing ‘that
write the best history’, yet he did not eschew social theory and looked to
and secondary sources and organized this material data around what Zeigler
sport studies’ (Freeman, 1983: 72). Following from the early work of P.C.
educational goals: physical and moral courage, loyalty and co-operation, the
capacity to act fairly and take defeat well, the ability to both command and
masters and boys, and expressed in speeches, poems and other literature,
the myth that Arnold was the pivotal figure of athleticism in the public
Mangan’s work differs from many reconstructionist historians and shifts his
book into the category of constructionist history is that the research material
interpretive process and not simply recording “facts”’ (Girginov, 2003: 98).
The central and defining conceptual tool is ideology which in its various
performed with skilful clarity, and is cleverly and smoothly woven into an
analysis of the practices that both flowed from and underlay the language of
1950. Like Mangan, Kirk’s approach is empirical in the sense that he infers
his findings from primary and secondary sources, but where his work
contrasts from Mangan as well as Zeigler is that openly places himself into
the history, he writes in the first person and thereby declares himself to be
conceptual tools as Mangan has: ‘I will try to convince the reader that the
emergence and consolidation of militarized physical training and school
medical inspection by the end of the first decade of this century represented
both the ultimate achievement and the beginning of the decline of a phase of
inspections and school sport and games -were analysed in relation to the
are indicative of the both the content material and the importance of the
narrative story in the past, rather they have no choice but to impose a
(1992; 2001), Kay Whitehead and Stephen Thorpe (2004) and Janice Wright
understands that any history is the history of the ‘here and now’ as much as
and their rationales for research, he eschews making any claims to political
neutrality, and he argues that there are no objective primacy of facts, as facts
only makes sense within individual and collective frames of reference. Kirk
This is not to say that scholarship or respect for the compelling weight
deconstructionist history.
education displays features very similar to the field of the history of sport
more broadly which until very recently has been reluctant to embrace what
has been termed the literary, cultural and rhetoric turns (Phillips, 2001). The
which have been argued are reflective of life in contemporary times (Poster
1997).
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