MECH 311 FLUID MECHANICS

Course Outline

Chapter 1: Properties of Fluids

1.1. Unit weight, Mass Density, and Specific Gravity
1.2. Viscosity, Surface Tension, and Capillarity
1.3. Bulk Modulus of Elasticity
1.4. Compression of Gases (Boyle’s Law)
1.5. Pressure Disturbances

Chapter 2: Principles of Hydrostatics

2.1 Unit Pressure
2.2 Pascal’s Law
2.3 Absolute Pressure and Gage Pressure
2.4 Variations in Pressure
2.5 Pressure Head and Manometers

Chapter 3: Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces

3.1 Total Forces on Plane Surfaces
3.2 Dams
3.3 Total Forces on Curved Surfaces
3.4 Stresses on Pipe walls (Hoop or Circumferential Stresses)
3.5 Buoyancy
3.6 Statical Stability of Floating Bodies

Chapter 4: Relative Equilibrium of Liquids

4.1 Rectilinear Acceleration (Moving Vessels)
4.2 Rotation (Rotating Vessels)

Complete Summary Lecture Notes

Prepared by:

ALOYSIUS C. MAPALO, MSCE

v.1: 2009
rev: 2019
 INTRODUCTION

Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics

Fluid mechanics and hydraulics represent that branch of applied mechanics that deals
with the behavior of fluids at rest and in motion. In the development of the principles of
fluid mechanics, some fluid properties play varying roles. In fluid flow, density and
viscosity are the predominant properties. Where appreciable compressibility occurs,
principles of thermodynamics must be considered. Vapor pressure becomes important
when negative pressures (gage) are involved, and surface tension affects static and flow
conditions in small passages.

Definition of a Fluid

Fluids are substances capable of flowing and conform to the shape of containing vessels.
When in equilibrium, fluids cannot sustain tangential or shear forces. All fluids have
some degree of compressibility and offer little resistance to change of form.

Fluids can be classified as liquids or gases. The chief differences between liquids and
gases are (a) liquids are practically incompressible, whereas gases are compressible and
usually must be so treated; and (b) liquids occupy definite volumes and have free
surfaces, whereas a given mass of gas expands until it occupies all portions of any
containing vessel.

CHAPTER 1
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Specific or Unit Weight

The specific or unit weight, γ (gamma), of any substance is the weight of a unit volume
of the substance.

weight of fluid Units:

g= English: lb/ft3
volume
Metric: dyne/cm3
SI: N/m3 or kN/m3

Unit Mass or Mass Density

The mass density, ρ (rho), of any substance is the mass of fluid per unit volume.

mass of fluid Units:

r= English: slugs/ft3
volume
Metric: gram/cm3
SI: kg/m3
Lecture Notes by: 2
ALOYSIUS C. MAPALO, MSCE
 w g
Since m = , then another formula for ρ is r = .
g g

The specific or unit volume, v, is referred to the volume of a substance per unit
mass:
V 1
u= or u=
m r

The density for gases can be calculated using its equation of state.
p p
=R therefore r=
rT RT

where: p = absolute pressure

R = gas constant
T = absolute temperature

Specific Gravity of a Body

The specific gravity of a body is the dimensionless ratio of the weight of the body to the
weight of an equal volume of a substance taken as a standard. Solids and liquids are
referred to water (at 68ºF = 20ºC) as standard, while gases are often referred to air
free of carbon dioxide or hydrogen (at 32ºF = 0ºC and 1 atmosphere) as standard.

wgt of body g body r body

s body = = =
wgt of water (same volume) g water r water

Lecture Notes by: 3

ALOYSIUS C. MAPALO, MSCE
Viscosity of a Fluid

The viscosity of a fluid is that property which determines the amount of its resistance to
a shearing force. Viscosity is due primarily to interaction between fluid molecules.

Referring to the above figure, consider two large parallel plates a small distance y apart,
the space between the plates being filled with a fluid. To keep the upper plate moving at
constant velocity U, it is found that a constant force F must be applied. Thus there must
exist a viscous interaction between plate and fluid, manifested as a drag on the former
and a shear force on the latter. The fluid in contact with the upper plate will adhere to it
and will move at velocity U, and the fluid in contact with the fixed plate will have
velocity zero. If distance y and velocity U are not too great, the velocity profile will be a
straight line. Experiments have shown that shear force F varies with the area of the
plate A, with velocity U, and inversely with distance y.
AU F U
Fµ or µ
y A y
F
If = Ss = shearing stress, and µ as proportionality constant, then,
A
U
Ss = µ , where µcan be considered as the property resisting shear. Therefore,
y

Ss Ss
µ= or, by similar triangles µ=
U dV
y dy

where: Ss = shearing stress in lb/ft2 or Pa

µ = absolute or dynamic viscosity in lb-sec/ft2 (poises) or Pa-sec
U= velocity in ft/s or m/s
y= distance between the plates in ft or m
dV/dy = rate of shear strain

Fluids obeying the above set of equations are called Newtonian fluids.

Lecture Notes by: 4

ALOYSIUS C. MAPALO, MSCE
Another viscosity coefficient, the coefficient of kinematic viscosity, ν, is defined as
the ratio of the dynamic viscosity of the fluid to its density.

µ µg
n= =
r g

Vapor Pressure

When evaporation takes place within an enclosed space, the partial pressure created by
the vapor molecules is called vapor pressure. Vapor pressures increase with rising
temperature.

Surface Tension

A molecule in the interior of a liquid is under attractive forces in all directions, and the
vector sum of these forces is zero. A molecule at the surface of a liquid is acted on by a
net inward cohesive force that is perpendicular to the surface. Hence it requires work to
move molecules to the surface against this opposing force, and surface molecules have
more energy than interior ones.

DF
The surface tension σ is given by s=
DL
where dF is the elastic force transverse to any length element dL in the surface.

The surface tension of a small drop of liquid causes the pressure inside the drop to
be greater than the pressure outside.

The figure above shows the forces that

cause equilibrium in the X direction of
half of a small drop of diameter d. The
forces ΣdL are due to surface tension
around the perimeter, and forces dPx
are the X components of the pdA
forces. Then,

å Fx = 0 or

surface tension x perimeter = pressure x projected area

Lecture Notes by: 5

ALOYSIUS C. MAPALO, MSCE
So the pressure inside a droplet of fluid can be calculated with
pd 2 4s
s(p × d) = p × ( ) or p=
4 d
where: σ = surface tension in N/m
d = diameter of droplet m
p = gage pressure in Pa

Capillarity

Rise or fall of liquid in a capillary tube (or in porous media) is caused by surface tension
and depends on the relative magnitudes of the cohesion of the liquid and the adhesion
of the liquid to the walls of the containing vessel. Liquids rise in tubes that they wet
(adhesion > cohesion) and fall in tubes that they do not wet (cohesion > adhesion).
Capillarity is important when using tubes smaller than about 3/8 inch in diameter. For
tube diameters larger than 1/2 inch, capillary effects are negligible.

Capillary rise (or depression) in a tube (see figure below) is given approximately by
2s cos q 4 s cos q
h= or h=
gr gd

where h is the height of the capillary rise (or depression), σ is the surface tension, σ is
the wetting angle (see figure below), γ is the specific weight of the liquid, and r is the
radius of the tube. If the tube is clean, θ is 0º for water and about 140º for mercury.

Bulk Modulus of Elasticity

The bulk modulus of elasticity (E) expresses the compressibility of a fluid. It is the ratio
of the change in unit pressure to the corresponding volume change per unit of volume

Lecture Notes by: 6

ALOYSIUS C. MAPALO, MSCE
 dp
E=
- dV
V
Because a pressure increase, dp, results in a decrease in fractional volume, dv/v, the
minus is inserted to render E positive. Clearly, the units of E are those of pressure (Pa
or lbf/in2)

Compression of Gases (Boyle’s Law or Ideal Gas Law)

For the same mass of gas subjected to different conditions, the product of absolute
pressure and volume divided by its absolute temperature is constant.
p1 v1 p 2 v 2
=
T1 T2
For Isothermal conditions, where temperature is constant, the ideal gas law
g 1 p1
becomes p1 v1 = p 2 v 2 and = = constant
g 2 p2
Also, the bulk modulus E = p

For Adiabatic or Isentropic conditions, where no heat is exchanged between the

gas and its container, the previous ideal gas equations are replaced by
k
æ g1 ö p
k
p1 v1 = p 2 v 2
k
and çç ÷÷ = 1 = constant
è g2 ø p2
k -1
T2 æ p 2 ö k
Also, =ç ÷
T1 çè p1 ÷ø
Here k is the ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure to the specific heat at
constant volume. Also known as the adiabatic exponent.

Pressure Disturbances

Pressure disturbances imposed on a fluid moves in waves. The velocity or celerity is

expressed as
EB
c=
r
where, c = celerity
EB = Bulk Modulus of the fluid
ρ = mass density of the fluid

Lecture Notes by: 7

ALOYSIUS C. MAPALO, MSCE
 CHAPTER 2
PRINCIPLES OF HYDROSTATICS

Fluid Pressure

The term pressure refers to the effects of a force acting against and distributed over a
surface. The force may be exerted by a solid, liquid, or gas. Often, the force causing a
pressure is simply the weight of a material.

Unit Pressure or Pressure

Unit pressure is expressed as force divided by area. In general,

Force, P
p=
Area, A

Pascal’s Law

“At any point in a fluid at rest, fluid pressure is transmitted with equal intensity in all
directions and acts normal to any plane. In the same horizontal plane, the pressure
intensities in a liquid are equal.”

Absolute and Gage Pressures

Pressure measurements are generally indicated as being either absolute pressure or

gage pressure (also called relative pressure). Absolute pressure uses absolute zero,
which is the lowest possible pressure and the pressure that would exist in a perfect
vacuum, as its base (i.e., zero reading). Gage pressure is measured with atmospheric
pressure as its base. Thus if a fluid pressure is 5.5 kPa above standard atmospheric
pressure (101.3 kPa), its gage pressure would be 5.5 kPa and its absolute pressure 55 +
101.3, or 106.8 kPa. Sometimes absolute and gage pressures are indicated by
appending "a" or "g," respectively, to the pressure units (i.e., psia or psig). If no a or g
(or other indication) is given, pressure is usually gage pressure.

Under normal conditions, atmospheric pressure is:

Patm = 2116.8 psf
= 14.7 psi
= 30 in of mercury
= 762 mm Hg
= 101.3 kPa
In the context of pressure, the term vacuum is used to refer to a space that has a
pressure less than atmospheric (negative gage pressure). Atmospheric pressure refers,
of course, to the prevailing pressure in the air around us. It varies somewhat with
changing weather conditions, and it decreases with increasing altitude. At sea level,
average atmospheric pressure is defined as 1 atm, a unit of pressure.

Lecture Notes by: 8

ALOYSIUS C. MAPALO, MSCE
Variations in Pressure for
Liquids
P1
Consider any two points (1 and 2),
1
whose difference in elevation is h, to y x
lie the ends of an elementary prism
having a cross-sectional area dA and L
a length L. Since this prism is at h
rest, all forces acting upon it must
be in equilibrium. 2 θ
W

P2
ΣFx = 0
P2 – P1 – Wsinθ = 0 but P = pA
and W = γV
p2dA – p1dA – γLdA(sinθ) = 0
p2 – p1 – γL sinθ = 0 but h = Lsinθ

p2 – p1 = γh or p2 = γh + p1

If point 1 is at fluid surface level (FSL), where p1 = 0, then,

p = γh

Variation of pressure for Gases and Fluids with Varying Density

dp = γdh

In measuring barometric pressure, where h shall be measured upwards from sea level,

p
dp = -ρgdh where r = (ideal gas equation of state)
RT

Pressure Head

Pressure head is the height “h” of a column of a homogenous fluid of unit weight γ that
will produce an intensity of pressure p.

p
h=
g

Lecture Notes by: 9

ALOYSIUS C. MAPALO, MSCE
To convert the height of liquid A to liquid B:
sA g r
hB = hA = hA A = hA A
sB gB rB
To convert to water, since hwater = 1, then, hwater = hfluid sfluid

Manometers

Manometers are used to measure pressure. It is a tube, usually bent in a form of a U,

containing a liquid of known specific gravity, the surface of which moves proportionally
to changes in pressure.

Types of Manometer:
Open type – has ah atmospheric surface in one leg and is capable of measuring
gage pressures.
Differential type – without an atmospheric surface and capable of measuring only
differential pressures.
Piezometer – the simplest form of manometer. It is a tube tapped into a wall of
a container or conduit for the purpose of measuring pressure. The fluid in the
conduit rises in this tube to form a free surface. Piezometers cannot be used for
high pressure and gas pressures.

Open Manometer Differential Manometer

Piezometer

Steps in the solution of manometer problems:

1. Decide on the fluid in feet or meter, of which the heads are to be expressed,
(water is most advisable).
2. Starting from an end point, number, in order, the interface of different fluids.
3. Identify points of equal pressure (taking into account that for a homogenous
fluid at rest, the pressure along the same horizontal plane are equal). Label
these points with the same number.
4. Proceed form level to level, adding (if going down) or subtracting (if going up)
pressure heads as the elevation decreases or increases, respectively with due
regard for the specific gravity of the fluids.

Lecture Notes by: 10

ALOYSIUS C. MAPALO, MSCE
 CHAPTER 3
TOTAL HYDROSTATIC FORCE ON SURFACES

Hydrostatic Force on Plane Surfaces

Engineers must calculate forces exerted by fluids in order to design constraining

structures satisfactorily. In this chapter all three characteristics of hydrostatic forces will
be evaluated: magnitude, direction, and sense. In addition, locations of forces will be
found.

A. Semi-Graphical Analysis
Draw pressure diagram on the surface (remembering that pressure acts
perpendicularly to a surface) by computing for the pressure intensities at the end points
(top and bottom) of a surface.

liquid surface

h1

p1 = γh1
p2 = γh2
h2 P = volume of pressure diagram
p1 (trapezoidal prism for
rectangular surfaces), acting
at the volume’s centroid.

p2

The pressure intensities are spread across the whole width so that the pressure
diagram becomes a solid. The resultant P (computed by solving the volume of the
pressure diagram), is the total hydrostatic force on the surface, acting perpendicularly at
the volume’s centroid.

B. General Formula

The force F exerted by a liquid on a plane area A is equal to the product of the
specific weight of the liquid, depth of the center of gravity of the area h , and the
area. The equation is:
F = g hA

Note that the product of specific weight and depth of the center of gravity of the
area yields the pressure at the area's center of gravity, therefore, F is also,

F = p cg A
Lecture Notes by: 11
ALOYSIUS C. MAPALO, MSCE
The line of action of the force passes through the center of pressure, which can be
located by applying the formula:
Icg
ycp = ycg +
Aycg
where y distances are measured along the plane’s axis of inclination from the liquid
surface (extended if necessary). If we call the distance between cp and cg the
eccentricity e, and distance y of cg, y , then we can write the formula for e as:

I cg
e=
Ay

cg
cp

Analysis of Dams

Large hydrostatic forces to which dams are subjected tend to cause a dam to (1) slide
horizontally along its base and (2) overturn about its downstream edge (which is known
as the toe of the dam). Another factor that may affect dam stability is hydrostatic uplift
along the bottom of the dam, caused by water seeping under the dam. Checks for dam
stability are made by finding (1) the factor of safety against sliding, (2) the factor of
safety against overturning, and (3) the pressure intensity on the base of the dam.

General procedure:

1. Consider 1m (or 1ft) length of dam.

2. Determine all the forces acting:
a. Vertical Forces
i. Weight of Dam
ii. Weight of Water
iii. Weight of Permanent Structures on the Dam

Lecture Notes by: 12

ALOYSIUS C. MAPALO, MSCE
 iv. Hydrostatic Uplift
b. Horizontal Forces
i. Hydrostatic Pressure Force on vertical projections of submerged
portions of the dam
ii. Wind Pressure
iii. Wave Action
iv. Floating Bodies
v. Earthquake Load
3. Solve for the Reactions
a. Vertical Reaction, Rv = ΣFv
b. Horizontal Reaction, Rh = ΣFh
4. Solve for Moments About the Toe
a. Righting Moment, RM = ΣM towards upstream side
b. Overturning moment, OM = ΣM towards downstream side
5. Location of Rv
R v x = SM = RM - OM
RM - OM
x=
Rv
6. Factors of Safety
a. Factor of Safety against Sliding
µR v
FSs =
Rh
where μ= coefficient of friction between soil foundation and base
b. Factor of Safety against Overturning
RM
FSo =
OM
7. Foundation Pressure
Solve Foundation Pressure using the combined axial and bending stress
P Mc
formula: f = ±
A I
R æ 6e ö
Relatively, f = v ç1 ± ÷
B è Bø

Where: B = base area = b(1m)

e = distance of Rv from base centroid
b
= -x
2

Lecture Notes by: 13

ALOYSIUS C. MAPALO, MSCE
 heel toe

fh

ft

Rv

1m base

Hydrostatic Force on Curved Surfaces

The horizontal component of the hydrostatic force on a curved surface is equal to the
normal force on the vertical projection of the surface. The component acts through the
center of pressure for the vertical projection

The vertical component of the hydrostatic force on a curved surface is equal to the
weight of the volume of liquid above the area, real or imaginary. The force passes
through the center of gravity of the volume.

Case I: Fluid is above the curved surface

liquid surface

Fv
real volume of liquid
above surface
vertical projected area
F of surface
Fh

curved surface

Lecture Notes by: 14

ALOYSIUS C. MAPALO, MSCE
Case II: Liquid is below the curved surface

liquid surface

imaginary volume of
curved surface liquid
above surface
vertical projected
area of surface
Fh

F Fv

Stresses on Pipe Walls (Hoop or Circumferential Stress)

Circumferential Stress

t
P

pressure = p
D
T

Consider a pipe of diameter D with thickness t be subjected to internal pressure of p.

Cutting a section of length s, the forces avting on the section are shown,

by ΣFh = 0, P = 2T but P = pA = pDs

and T = St Awall = Stst
therefore pDs = 2(Stst)
canceling s pD = 2Stt solving for St, St = (pD)/(2t)
solving for t, t = (pD)/(2St)
where:
p = pressure t = thickness of pipe wall
D = inside diameter of pipe St = tensile stress in pipe wall
Lecture Notes by: 15
ALOYSIUS C. MAPALO, MSCE
Stresses in Storage Vats
• Storage Vats are wooden staves bounded by bands (hoops), rectangular or
circular in section

s s

Using the same analysis, but this time assuming that the hoops carry the internal
stresses and cutting a section with a tributary length, s, which is equivalent to spacing
of hoops:

by ΣFh = 0, P = 2T but P = pA = pDs

and T = St Ahoop = StAh
therefore pDs = 2(StAh)

solving for St, St = (pDs)/(2Ah)

solving for s, s = (2 St Ah)/(pD)
where:
p = pressure s = spacing of hoops
D = inside diameter of vat St = tensile stress in hoops
Ah = cross-sectional area of hoops

Buoyancy

Archimedes’ Principle:
“ Any body immersed in a fluid is acted upon by an upward force (buoyant force) which
is equal to the weight of the displaced fluid. The buoyant force acts at the centroid of
the displaced volume, which is called the center of buoyancy.””

BF = g f VD

To solve problems in buoyancy, identify the forces acting and apply conditions of static
equilibrium. Take note of supported bodies as reactions at supports must be taken into
consideration.

Lecture Notes by: 16

ALOYSIUS C. MAPALO, MSCE
For unsupported partially submerged floating bodies,

W = BF
g b VT = g f VD
g s
therefore, Vd = b VT = b VT
gf sf
If the body with height H has a constant horizontal cross-sectional area such as vertical
cylinders, prisms,
sb
D= H
sf
where D = draft (submerged depth)
If the body is uniform vertical cross-sectional area A,
the area submerged is,
sb
As = A
sf

Stability of Floating Bodies

For completely submerged bodies, its center of gravity must be below the center of
buoyancy. If the body is homogenous, where the center of gravity and center of
buoyancy coincide, it is said to have neutral stability.

Stable position Unstable position

Lecture Notes by: 17

ALOYSIUS C. MAPALO, MSCE
For partially submerged floating bodies, a parameter called the metacentric height
can be used as a measure of the stability of a floating body.

In the figure:
W =weight of body
BF =buoyant force
G =center of gravity
Bo =center of buoyancy
(in the upright position)
Bo’ =center of buoyancy
(in the tilted position)
θ =angle of tilting
M =metacenter
MG =metacentric height
MBo=dist from M to Bo
GBo=dist from M to G

MG = MBo - GBo

If M is above G, or MG is
positive, floating body is
stable.
If M is below G, or MG is
negative, floating body is
unstable.
If M coincides with G, or
MG is zero, floating body
is neutrally stable.

Value of MBo:
vs
General Formula: MB o =
VD sin q

where, v = volume of wedge immersion

s = horizontal distance between the cg’s of the wedges
VD = volume displaced

For small values of θ (θ≈0° or θ=0°):

I
MB o =
VD

where, I = moment of inertia of the horizontal waterline section about the axis of
tilting (usually rolling).

Lecture Notes by: 18

ALOYSIUS C. MAPALO, MSCE
For rectangular sections:
B 2 æ tan 2 q ö
MB o = ç1 + ÷
12D çè 2 ÷ø

where, B = width of scow

D = draft (in upright position)
θ = angle of tilting

CHAPTER 4
RELATIVE EQUILIBRIUM

Under certain conditions, the particles of a fluid mass may have no relative motion
between each other yet the mass itself may be in motion. In this case, special
treatment is required while using basic concepts of fluid statics in equilibrium.

Rectilinear Acceleration

A. Horizontal Motion

Consider a mass of fluid a

moving with a linear W=mg
acceleration ‘a’ as shown.
Investigating a particle of fluid
in the surface, the forces θ REF=ma
acting are weight W, inertia
force (reversed effective force) θ
REF and the reaction N, which
N
is normal to the surface (since
liquids cannot resist shearing
stresses).

REF ma a
Applying static equilibrium, tan q = = therefore, tan q =
W mg g

This means, the surface and all planes of equal hydrostatic pressure must be inclined at
this angle θ with the horizontal.

Lecture Notes by: 19

ALOYSIUS C. MAPALO, MSCE
B. Inclined Motion
REFy=may
a ay
Consider a mass of fluid being a
accelerated upwards at an W=mg
ax
inclination α with the horizontal
so that ax = a cos α and θ
REFx=max
ay = a sin α
θ
In the force polygon:
ma x N
tan q =
mg + ma y α
therefore,

ax
tan q = use (+) if acceleration inclined upwards, and (–) if downwards.
g ± ay

REF=ma

C. Vertical Motion

Consider a mass of fluid accelerated upwards or downwards with W=mg

an acceleration of ‘a’ as shown. The forces acting on a cylindrical
element is shown in the figure. h

F=pdA
From static analysis, F = ma + mg
g g g
If m = Vol = hdA , then pdA = hdA(a + g )
g g g
gh æ aö
Therefore, p= (g + a ) or, p = gh çç1 ± ÷÷
g è gø
use (+) if acceleration is upwards, and (–) if downwards.

Rotating Vessels

When a liquid mass is rotated about a vertical axis at a constant angular speed of ω (in
radians per second), every particle experiences a normal acceleration of an, which is
v2
equal to , where v is the linear velocity of the particle with distance x from the axis
x

Lecture Notes by: 20

ALOYSIUS C. MAPALO, MSCE
of rotation. If v=ωx, then an=ω2x. this acceleration causes an inertia force (centrifugal
W 2
force) which is equal to man or v x.
g

W 2
v x
CF g
In the force polygon, tan q = =
W W

v2x slope of the liquid surface at any point x from

Simplifying, tan q = the axis
g
dy v 2
But tanθ=dy/dx = x
dx g
v2
dy = xdx
g
y x
v2
ò dy =
0
g ò0
xdx

v2x2
y= equation of a parabola
2g

v2r 2
at (r,h): h=
2g

In solutions of problems on rotating vessels, the squared property of parabola and the
volume of a paraboloid will be useful:
2 2
x1 x squared property of parabola
= 2
y1 y2

Lecture Notes by: 21

ALOYSIUS C. MAPALO, MSCE
 1 2
V= pr h volume of a paraboloid
2
Other solution tips on liquid surface conditions:

For open cylindrical vessels partly filled:

Note: for closed cylindrical vessels, there can never be any liquid spilled, so the
initial volume of liquid (before rotation) is always equal to the final volume
of the liquid (during rotation) or the initial volume of air inside is equal to
the final volume of air inside. The volume of air relation is more convenient
to use in solving this types of problem.
Lecture Notes by: 22
ALOYSIUS C. MAPALO, MSCE
For closed cylindrical vessels completely filled with liquid:

For pipes and tubes:

without initial pressure inside

with initial pressure inside

Lecture Notes by: 23

ALOYSIUS C. MAPALO, MSCE