2nd Quarter Chemistry

Chemical Reactions
-substance/substances is converted to one or more
new substances.
-follow the Law of conservation of mass - no atoms are
created or destroyed; they are just rearranged.
- represent chemical reactions through chemical Charles’s Law -
equations. volume of a given amount of gas is directly proportional
to its absolute temperature at constant pressure.
Reactants - starting substances; are placed on the left V / T = k or V1 / T1 = V2 / T2
side.
Products - substances produced; are placed on
the right.

Evidences that a chemical reaction has occurred:

a. Change in color
b. Formation of a solid (a precipitate)
c. Evolution of gas (bubble formation) Avogadro’s
d. Change in temperature (heat is released or Law - volume of a gas at a given temperature pressure
absorbed). is directly proportional to the number of moles
contained in the volume.
Five Types V / n = k or V1 / n1 = V2 / n2
1. Decomposition reaction – a reactant breaks down
into two or more products. Ideal Gas Law Equation:
2. Synthesis reaction – two or more reactants form a PV=nRT
single product. R = 0.0821 atm×L/mol×K
3. Single displacement reaction – one element replaces
another in a compound. Combined Gas Law
4. Double displacement – two ionic compounds PV /T = n R = k
exchange ions P 1 V 1/T 1 = P 2 V 2/T 2
5. Combustion reaction – a hydrocarbon (a compound
containing carbon and hydrogen) reacts with oxygen to Mixtures of Gases
form carbon dioxide and water. The number of moles of each gas is n1, n2 and n3, for
gases 1, 2 and 3, respectively, so that the total number
Stoichiometry - is the study of the quantities of of moles of gases is,
materials consumed and produced in chemical n total = n1 + n2 + n3
reactions.
The pressure of the mixture is given by the Ideal Gas
Pressure – amount of force exerted per unit area. - Equation:
1 atm = 760 Torr (mm Hg) P mixture V = n total R T
1 atm = 101.3 kPa
Partial pressure ( P1, P2, and P3 ) of each gas,
Equivalence of the liter in SI units corresponds to the pressure that
1 L = 1000 m3 the gas will exert in a volume equal to that of the
1 L = 1 dm3 mixture.
1 mL = 1 cm3
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure - the total pressure of
Boyle’s Law - volume of a given amount of gas is a gas mixture is equal to the sum of the partial pressure
inversely proportional to its pressure at constant of each gas.
temperature.
P 1/Pmixture = n1/n total = x1
P V = k or P1 V1 = P2 V2
Reaction stoichiometry – the relationship between the
moles of reactants and products in a reaction.
STP - Standard Temperature (273K) and Pressure
(1atm). [ Volume - 22. 4L ]
Kinetic Molecular Theory - each other, leading to a greater volume.
assumes a model which can be used to explain why
gases behave the way they do.
The model is described through a set of postulates:
1. Gases are made up of very small molecules,which are
separated by a very great distance between them. The
dimension of the molecules is very much smaller than
the distance between them.
2. Because of the very great distance between them,
the force of attraction between the molecules is
negligible. The molecules are independent of each
other.
3. The molecules are in constant motion, moving in
randomly in all directions.
4. Due to the great number of molecules and their
random motion, it is unavoidable that the molecules
will collide with each other and with the walls of the
container.
5. During these collisions, there is no change in the
momentum of the molecules.
6. The average kinetic energy of the molecules is
determined only by the absolute temperature of the
gas.
a. Why can gases be compressed? Because
of the great distance between them, gases can be
forced to be close to each other by compressing it.
b. Why does the volume of a gas decrease as the
pressure is increased at constant temperature? Boyle’s
Law, as the molecules become closer to each other, the
volume of the gas becomes smaller.
c. Why do gases exert pressure? Collision
of the molecules with the walls of the container
produces a force acting on the wall.
d. Why does the volume of a gas increase as it is
heated at constant pressure?
Charles’s Law, ccording to this postulate, if the
temperature is increased, the kinetic energy of the
molecule increases. The increased kinetic energy makes
the molecules to move faster and farther apart from
FORMULA
This equation clearly shows that as the temperature
increases, the velocity of the
molecule increases.The gas
molecules move faster at
a higher temperature. It also shows that as the molar
mass M of the molecule increases, the velocity of the
molecule decreases.
The root-mean-
square
velocity is
the squareroot of the mean of the square of the
velocities of the molecules
Graham’s Law of Diffusion - relationship between
diffusion rate and molar mass has been verified by
experiments.
Electromagnetic Waves, Planck’s Quantum Theory,
and Photoelectric Effect
- early 1900’s that a new way of looking at energy and
matter began.
- stemmed from Max Planck’s idea about blackbody
radiation and culminated in Schrodinger’s wave
equation known also as the wave function, ψ (psi),
which described the hydrogen atom.
Particle - object which has distinct chemical or physical
properties such as volume or mass.
Wave - disturbance that travels from one location to
another location.
Crest - highest peak of the wave
Trough - lowest point is named as the trough.
Amplitude - one-half the distance from crest to trough.
Wavelength (lambda - λ) - distance from crest to crest
or from trough to trough.
Frequency (nu or ν)
- number of waves passing a fixed point in a specified
period of time.
- has units of waves per second or cycles per second.
- unit for frequency is the Hertz (abbreviated Hz) where
1 Hz is equivalent to 1 cycle per second.
Period
- the
time
for a particle on a medium to make one complete
vibrational cycle.
Thus, wavelength, λ, and frequency, v, are indirectly
related to one another. The wavelength of the wave
multiplied by the frequency of the wave corresponds to
the speed, µ, of the wave. In an equation form,
λν = µ
Mechanical Wave - requires a medium for it to travel,
i.e. the sound wave, water wave, etc.
Electromagnetic Wave - capable of transmitting its
energy through an empty space or vacuum.
Light is considered to be a electromagnetic wave. In
electromagnetic radiation, the frequency of the
wave when multiplied by its wavelength corresponds to
the speed of light, c.
λν = c
where c = 3.00 x 108 m/s.
Shor
test waves have the highest frequency, like the gamma
rays, result from the changes within the nucleus of the
atom.
Visible light waves, with wavelength that range from
about 400-700 nm, are produced by the motions of
electrons within the atoms and molecules.
Longest waves are those emitted by the antennas of
broadcasting stations and the lowest frequency.
PLANCK’S QUANTUM THEORY
Blackbody - material that absorbs all radiation that falls
on it and is therefore a perfect absorber.
Planck proposed that the atoms on the surface of the
heated solid could absorb energy only in discrete
quantities or quanta, and not continuously as assumed
by classical physics.
E = hν
ν = frequency and h = 6.626 x 10-34 J s
EINSTEIN’S EXPLANATION OF THE PHOTOELECTRIC
EFFECT
Classical physics
- when light hits a metal surface, the electrons in the
metal should slowly absorb energy from the light until
they have enough energy to be emitted to produce a
current.
- also predicted that as the intensity of the incident light
increases, the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons
should increase.
However, the experiment did not support these
predictions but provided the following observations:
a. When light is made to hit a metal surface, there is a
threshold frequency below which no electrons can be
ejected regardless of the intensity of the incident light.
b. Above the threshold frequency, the number of
ejected electrons was proportional to the
intensity (or brightness) of the incident light but their
energies were not.
c. Above the threshold frequency, the kinetic energy of
the emitted electrons increased linearly with the
frequency of the incident light.
Note: These results could not be explained by the wave
theory of light. Waves can have any amount of energy -
big waves have a lot of energy, small waves have very
little. And if light is a wave, then the brightness of the
light affects the amount of energy - the brighter the
light, the bigger the wave, the more energy it has.
THE PARTICLE-WAVE DUALITY OF LIGHT
- Light is a wave as shown by different experiments like
the diffraction of light by a prism to yield the visible
spectrum. However, the photoelectric effect
experiment showed that light also behaves like a
particle.
Thus light has both wavelike and particlelike properties.
- light was actually made up of lots of small packets of
energy called photons that behaved like particles.
- If the electron is tightly held by the metal and the
energy of the incident light (corresponding to the
threshold frequency) is not sufficient, no electron will
be ejected.
- If the energy of the incident light is sufficient, it will
use the energy to eject the electron; the rest will be
given off as the kinetic energy of the electron.
hν = W + K.E
W = work function
K.E. is the kinetic energy.
THE EMISSION SPECTRUM AND THE BOHR THEORY OF
THE HYDROGEN ATOM
When elements are energized by heat or other means,
they give off a characteristic or distinctive spectrum,
called an Emission Spectrum, which can be used to
differentiate one element from another.
Rutherford’s theory - the atom was described to be
mostly empty space having a very tiny but dense
nucleus that contained the protons.
Niels Bohr - proposed his model of the hydrogen atom
to explain how electrons could stay in
stable orbits around the nucleus, in 1913. (not
considered as correct)
Bohr made the following postulates:
a. Electrons go around the nucleus in circular orbits.
However, not all circular orbits are allowed. The
electron is allowed to occupy only specific orbits with
specific energies. Therefore, the energies of the
electron are quantized.
b. If the electron stays in the allowed orbit, its energy is
stable. It will not emit radiation and it will not spiral into
the nucleus.
c. If an electron jumps from one orbit to another, it will
absorb or emit energy in quanta equal to ∆E=hv.
•Negative sign is an arbitrary convention. A free
elec
tron
is
arbi
trarily considered to have an energy of zero.
•Negative energy means that the energy of the
electron is lower than the energy of a free electron.
•RH - Rydberg constant for hydrogen equal to
2.18 x 10-18J. The number n is an integer equal to n = 1,
2, 3,…
Remember:
As the value of the energy gets less negative, the energy
gets higher.
E1 is the lowest energy and, therefore, the most stable
state, called the ground state or the ground level.
E2, E3, E4, etc.,have higher energies and are less stable
than E1, called excited states or excited levels.
Note: As the electron gets closer to the nucleus, it
becomes more stable.
•When energy is absorbed by the atom, the electron
gets excited and jumps from a lower orbit to a higher
orbit.
•When electrons go from a higher energy level to a
lower energy level, it emits radiation. According to
Bohr, if an electron jumps from one orbit to another, it
will absorb or emit
THE LIMITATIONS OF THE BOHR MODEL OF THE ATOM
Although the Bohr model could explain the emission
spectrum of hydrogen and was an important step in the
development of atomic theory, it has several
limitations:
a. It cannot explain the spectrum of atoms with more
than one electron.
b. It cannot explain the relative intensities of spectral
lines (why are some lines more intense than others)
c. It cannot explain why some lines are slit into several
components in the presence of a magnetic field (called
the Zeeman effect)
d. According to the Bohr model, when electrons go
around the nucleus in certain orbits, its energy remains
constant. But moving electrons would lose energy by
emitting electromagnetic waves and the electron is
expected to spiral into the nucleus.
e. It violates the Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle. The
Bohr model considers electrons to have a known radius
and orbit which is impossible according to Heisenberg.
THE DUAL NATURE OF THE ELECTRON; DE BROGLIE’S
EQUATION
- Louis de Broglie reasoned that if light could have
particle-like properties, then particles like electrons
could also have wavelike properties.
- a particle in motion can be treated as a wave and a
wave can exhibit properties of a particle.
- An electron, for instance, has both particle and
wavelike propertie.
Why are only certain orbits allowed in the Bohr
model? Following De Broglie’s idea, if the electron going
around the nucleus in a circular orbit behaves as a
wave, then it should behave as a standing wave.
λ = h / mu
Where h is Planck’s constant, m is the mass of the
particle, and u is the velocity.
Diffraction - various phenomena which occur when a
wave encounters an obstacle or a slit.
Although De Broglie was credited for his hypothesis, he
had no actual experimental evidence for his conjecture.
In 1927, Clinton J. Davisson and Lester H. Germer, from
the United States, shot electron particles onto a crystal
of nickel. What they saw was the diffraction of the
electron similar to waves diffraction against crystals (x-
rays). The father, J.J. Thomson (discover the electron),
showed that the electron is a particle and George P.
Thomson, the son, showed that the electron is a wave.
Why do elements emit different colors when heated?
Pyrotechnic materials such as flares and fireworks also
follow the atomic spectra concepts. Inside a mortar are
different chemicals.. These chemicals are ignited
through a time fuse, causing the electrons in the
chemicals to be excited during the reaction in the
atmosphere. As the electrons go down a lower energy
level, different colors are emitted from these different
chemicals. The red glow is light with the least energy
and the violet glow has the most energy.
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
- Werner Heisenberg
- states that “the position of a particle and its
momentum cannot be simultaneously measured with
arbitrarily high precision.”
- it is not possible to measure the exact position and the
exact momentum of a particle at the same time.
∆x∆p = h / 4π
THE SCHRODINGER EQUATION
Erwin Schrodinger
- formulated a mathematical equation that describes
the behavior and energies of submicroscopic particles.
- incorporates particle behavior and wave behavior,
treating the electron as a standing wave.
- solution to the Schrodinger equation is a wave
function called ψ (psi).
- can be solved exactly for the hydrogen atom but not
for atoms with more than one electron.
- The probability of finding the electron in a particular
volume element in space is proportional to ψ2.
- In wave theory, the intensity of light is proportional to
the square of the amplitude of the wave or ψ2.
THE QUANTUM MECHANICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE
HYDROGEN ATOM
- It is not possible to pinpoint the exact location of the
electron in an atom but ψ2 gives the region where it
can most probably be found.
- The electron density gives the probability that the
electron will be found in a particular region of an atom.
The Principal Quantum Number (n)
a. Determines the energy of an orbital
b. Determines the orbital size
c. Is related to the average distance of the electron from
the nucleus in a particular orbital; the larger the n value,
the farther the average distance of the electron from
the nucleus
d. Can have the values: n = 1, 2, 3, …
e. Orbitals with the same n are said to be in the same
shell.

The Angular Momentum Quantum Number (ℓ)

a. Describes the “shape” of the orbitals
b. Can have the following values:ℓ= 0, 1, 2, up to n-1.
c. Orbitals with the same n and values belong to the
same subshell.
d. It is usually designated by letters s, p, d, f, … which
have a historical origin from spectral lines.
The Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)

a. Describes the orientation of the orbital in space

b. Can have the values:

- ℓ, (-ℓ + 1), … 0, … (+ ℓ -1), + ℓ

The Electron Spin Quantum Number (ms)

a. The first three quantum numbers describe the
energy, shape and orientation of orbitals.
- The 4th quantum number refers to two different spin
orientations of electrons in a specified orbital.

b. When lines of the hydrogen spectrum are examined

at very high resolution, they are found to be closely
spaced doublets and called as the Zeeman effect. This
splitting is called fine structure, and was one of the first
experimental evidences for electron spin.

c. Uhlenbeck, Goudsmit, and Kronig (1925) introduced

the idea of the self-rotation of the
electron. The spin orientations are called "spin-up" or
"spin-down" and is assigned the number ms = ½ ms = -
½, respectively.

d. The spin property of an electron would give rise to

magnetic moment, which was a requisite for the fourth
quantum number. The electrons are paired such that
one spins upward and one downward, neutralizing the
effect of their spin on the action of the atom as a whole.