Electrical Network Analysis Lab Manual

Course Code: EF-2203P

Submitted To: Engr. Ali Hassan

Submitted By:

Name:

Roll No:

B.Sc. Electrical Engineering

Session:

Department of Electrical Engineering

GC University, Lahore
 Electrical Network Analysis (Practical)
Course Code: EF-2203P
List of Experiments
No. Of Experiments Title
Experiments
1 To Study the Step Response of RL series circuit

2 To Study the Step Response of RC series circuit

3 To Study the Oscillatory Response of RLC series circuit

4 To Study the Under Damped Response of RLC series circuit

5 To Study the Over Damped Response of RLC series circuit

6 To Study the Critically Damped Response of RLC series circuit

7 To Study the Laplace Transform Calculation

8 To Study the Poles and Zeros Mapping

9 To Study Three phase power measurement and star delta connection

10 To Study the leading behavior of capacitance

11 To Study the lagging behavior of inductance

12 To study the resonance frequency of RLC series circuit

EXPERIMENT#1: TO STUDY THE STEP RESPONSE OF RL SERIES
CIRCUIT

Objectives:

(i) To study the step response of RL series circuit.

Components and equipment required:

(i) Resistors
(ii) Inductor
(iii) Capacitor
(iv) Signal Generator
(v) Oscilloscope

Theory:

Natural Response:

The currents and voltages that arise when the energy stored in an inductor or capacitor is
suddenly released to the resistors in the circuit are referred to as the natural response of the
circuit. The behavior of these currents and voltages depends only on the nature of the
circuit, and not on external sources of excitation.

Natural Response of RL Series Circuit:

In an RL circuit, the natural response is described in terms of the voltage and current at the
terminals of the resistor when the external source of power stops delivering energy to the
circuit. The expressions for the current and voltage across the resistor are:
i(t) = Io e −t/τ , t ≥ 0 (3-1)
−t/τ
v(t) = Io Re ,t≥0 (3-2)
where Io is the initial current through the inductor before the power source goes off and the
inductor starts releasing energy to the circuit.
The symbol τ represents the time constant of the circuit,
τ = L/R (3-3)
Which determines the rate at which the current or voltage decays to zero.
An RL circuit is shown in Fig. 3-1. Here, V s provides a square signal with a DC offset
voltage such that the bottom part of the waveform is aligned with the zero volts level. R s is
the internal resistance of the voltage source, hence when the square wave takes the value of
zero volts (and can be viewed as a short circuit) the energy of the inductor L is released
through the combination of R 1 and R s .In order to observe the natural response of the
circuit, the period T of the square wave must be long enough to allow the complete charge
and discharge of the inductor. Usually T = 20τ is appropriate for this purpose.
Summarizing, the natural response of an RL circuit is calculated by (1) finding the initial
current I o through the inductor, (2) finding the time constant of the circuit (Eq. 3-3), and (3)
using Eq. 3-1 to generate i(t).

Step Response:

The response of a circuit to the sudden application of a constant voltage or current source is
referred to as the step response of the circuit. This case presents the opposite conditions of
the natural response. Now, in RL circuit, the inductor (assumed to be completely
discharged) begins acquiring energy after a sudden application of an external power source.
The voltages and currents that arise in the circuit under these conditions are discussed next

Figure 3-1: RL Series Circuit

Step Response Of RL Series Circuit:

In an RL circuit the initial conditions to determine the step response are assumed to be I o
=0. The expressions for the current in the circuit and the voltage across the inductor after the
voltage source is applied are:
i(t) =(Vs/ R)(1 − e −t/τ ) (3-4)
−t/τ
v(t) = Vs e (3-5)
Notice that Eq. 6-4 indicates that the current increases from zero to a final value of V s /R at
a rate determined by the time constant τ = L/R.
The circuit of Fig. 3-1 can be used to determine the step response providing that the period
of the square wave is long enough to allow the complete charge and discharge of the
inductor in successive cycles. For this
circuit, R = Rs + R1.

Preparation:
To study the step response of RL series circuit considers the circuit in the figure and
components of values:
  50ohm resistor,10mH inductor
 50ohm resistor,20mH inductor

Determine R, τ and the expression for the current i(t) through the inductor. Generate a
computer graph of i(t) versus time in the interval from 0 to 7τ seconds in increments of
7τ/100 seconds.

Procedure:

Equipment setting:

• Function generator type of waveform: Square wave Amplitude=5V, Offset=2.5V,

Frequency: Determined by circuit parameters. Notice that the actual amplitude of the signal
is 10 V.

• Oscilloscope External trigger: from the SYNC out terminal of the function generator.
Channel 2: Disconnected (disconnect the probe from channel 2)

Produce to measure Step Response of RL Series Circuit:

To avoid ground conflicts with the equipment, connect the inductor to the positive terminal
of the function generator and the resistor to the negative terminal (it is a series circuit, so the
order of connection is irrelevant). Set the frequency of the function generator to about 0.05/τ
Hz. Connect the oscilloscope probe of channel 1 across the resistor, this will give a scaled
version (by a factor of R 1 ) of the current through the inductor. Repeat the procedure of (1)
to obtain the step response of an RL circuit, change the resistor and inductor values and
calculate the slope from low to high.
Discuss your observation.

__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
EXPERIMENT#2: TO STUDY OF THE STEP RESPONSE OF RC SERIES
CIRCUIT

Objectives:

(i) To study the step response of RC series circuit.

Components and equipment required:

(i) Resistors
(ii) Capacitor
(iii) Signal Generator
(iv) Oscilloscope

Theory:

Step Response:

The response of a circuit to the sudden application of a constant voltage or current source is
referred to as the step response of the circuit. This case presents the opposite conditions of the
natural response. Now, in RC circuits, the capacitor (assumed to be completely discharged)
begins acquiring energy after a sudden application of an external power source. The voltages and
currents that arise in the circuit under these conditions are discussed next

Step Response Of RC Series Circuit:

A resistor-capacitor (RC) circuit is shown in fig. This circuit has some very similar properties to
inductor that can be used to determine the value of capacitor in the circuit. If the input of the
circuit is abruptly stepped from 0 volts to some positive value, the output voltage (VS) rises in an
exponential manner.
The mathematical expression for the step response of the circuits shown is

The output voltage that results from a voltage step at the input is called the STEP RESPONSE.
Notice that the step response does not immediately reach the final level, but rises in a more VS
sluggish manner. Theoretically, it will take an infinite amount of time for settle to its final value
(which is the same as the final value of the standard method for describing how quickly the v o
VS) circuit responds is the TIME CONSTANT of the circuit.
In one time constant, the step response reaches 63.2 percent of its final value.
Figure 4-1: RC circuit can be used to determine capacitor value by measuring the time
constant of the circuit RC circuit

Time Constant:

The time constant can be computed from the circuit values:

An unknown capacitor whose value is to be determined can be connected to a known resistor in

the appropriate circuit. (The resistor's value can be easily measured with an ohmmeter.)
The time constant of the circuit is measured and the unknown component value computed.

Figure 4-2: The step response input (VS) and output (VO) waveforms for the RC
Since the time constant is obviously a time domain parameter, an oscilloscope is required to
measure it (Figure 8-2). For the step input, a switch connected to a voltage source might work,
but a function generator is usually more practical. The function generator is set to output a fairly
low-frequency square wave (about 100 Hz), which acts as a repetitive step voltage. The period of
the square wave must be long enough to allow the circuit to settle (within the desired accuracy)
to its final value before receiving the next voltage step (rising edge of the next square wave
cycle). The amplitude of the square wave is fairly arbitrary, as long as the voltage is large
enough to measure easily with the scope, and component ratings are not exceeded.

To a certain extent, the value of the resistor will depend on the value of the capacitor being
measured. At first glance, this may seem like a real problem, since the goal is to measure the
capacitor. However, a small amount of experimentation and experience will simplify the process.
An experienced user can make a very rough estimate of the size of capacitor by its physical
construction. For example, a polarized electrolytic capacitor is likely to be in 1 µF to 100 µF,
while a small ceramic capacitor is more likely to be less than 1 µF. To use the oscilloscope to
measure the time constant conveniently, it is recommended that the time constant be kept within
the range of 10msec to 10 µsec. A recommended resistance value to start with is 1 kW. The
function generator's output resistance appears in series with the resistance and should be included
in the calculations. Figure shows the input and output voltages with a suitable time constant and
oscilloscope setup.

Preparation:

To study the step responses of RC series circuit consider the circuit in the figure and components
of values:
 50ohm resistor,10µF capacitor
 50ohm resistor, 20µF capacitor

Determine R, τ and the expression for the voltage v(t) through the capacitor. Generate a graph
on excel of v(t) versus time in the interval from 0 to 7τ seconds in increments of 7τ/100 seconds.
Procedure:

Equipment setting:

•Function generator. Type of waveform square wave, Amplitude=5V, Offset=5V, Frequency:

Determined by circuit parameters. Notice that the actual amplitude of the signal is 10 V.

• Oscilloscope. External trigger: from the SYNC out terminal of the function generator. Channel
2: Disconnected (disconnect the probe from channel 2)

Procedure to measure Step Response of RC Series Circuit:

To avoid ground conflicts with the equipment, connect the inductor to the positive terminal of
the function generator and the resistor to the negative terminal (it is a series circuit, so the order
of connection is irrelevant). Set the frequency of the function generator to about 0.05/τ Hz.
Connect the oscilloscope probe of channel 1 across the resistor, this will give a scaled version
(by a factor of R 1 ) of the current through the inductor. Repeat the procedure of (1) to obtain the
step response of an RC circuit. Change the resistor and inductor values and calculate the slope
from low to high.

Figure 4-3: A function generator and an oscilloscope are used to measure the step response
of this RC circuit. The function generator's output resistance is in series with R and will
affect the time constant of the circuit
Figure 4-4: An example of an RC circuit's step response. Both input and output waveforms
are shown.

Discuss your observations

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
EXPERIMENT#3: TO STUDY THE OSCILLATORY RESPONSE OF RLC
SERIES CIRCUIT

Objectives:

(i) To study the oscillatory response of RLC circuit.

Components and equipment required:

(i) Resistors
(ii) Capacitors
(iii) inductor
(iv) Signal generator
(v) Oscilloscope

Theory:

RLC circuits are widely used in a variety of applications such as filters in communications
systems, ignition systems in automobiles, defibrillator circuits in biomedical applications, etc.
The analysis of RLC circuits is more complex than of the RC circuits we have seen in the
previous lab. RLC circuits have a much richer and interesting response than the previously
studied RC or RL circuits. A summary of the response is given below.

Let’s assume a series RLC circuit as is shown in Figure 1. The discussion is also applicable to
other RLC circuits such as the parallel circuit.

Figure 5.1: Series RLC circuit

By writing KVL one gets a second order differential equation. The solution consists of two parts:

x(t) = xn(t) + xp(t),

in which xn(t) is the complementary solution (=solution of the homogeneous differential equation
also called the natural response) and a xp(t) is the particular solution (also called forced
response). Let’s focus on the complementary solution. The form of this solution depends on the
roots of the characteristic equation.

in which is the damping ratio and is the undamped resonant frequency. The roots of the
quadratic equation are equal to,

For the example of the series RLC circuit one has the following characteristic equation for the
current iL(t) or vC(t),

s2 + R/L.s + 1/LC =0 (2)

from (1) and (2)

2𝜌𝜔𝑛 = R/L
𝜔𝑛 = 1/𝐿𝐶

Depending on the value of the damping ratio one has three possible cases:

Oscillatory response:
When roots are pure imaginary the response will be oscillatory
𝑠1 , 𝑠2 =±𝑖𝜔𝑛

Figure 5.2: Oscillatory response

Experimental procedure:

1. Using the value of R=0ohm, L=10mH, C=10𝜇F ,V=10 V

Calculate 𝜌, 𝜔𝑛 , 𝑠1 , 𝑠2 , 𝑖(𝑡)?

1
𝜔𝑛 = = _______________________________________________________
√𝐿𝐶

𝑅
𝜌 = 𝐿𝜔 = _______________________________________________________
𝑛

|𝑠1 𝑠2 | = −𝜌𝜔𝑛 ± 𝑖𝜔𝑛 √1 − 𝜌2

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Using this formula calculate the value of i(t)

i(t)=𝑘1 𝑒 𝑠1𝑡 +𝑘2 𝑒 𝑠2𝑡

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

Now from above expression of i(t) discuss nature of response

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

1. Draw a graph on excel which will be our calculated waveform make a print and attach
with manual.

2. Simulate the RLC circuit (which is given below) using Multisim software (use the values
of R, L and C which is given). Use a square wave with 10Vpp (i.e. amplitude of 5V with
 offset of 5V - use the function generator) and frequency of 50 Hz as input voltage.
Compare the waveforms with the one you calculated. Make a print out.

Discuss your observations

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
EXPERIMENT#4: TO STUDY THE UNDERDAMPED RESPONSE OF
RLC SERIES CIRCUIT

Objectives:

(i) To study the under damped response of RLC circuit

Components and equipment required:

(i) Resistors
(ii) Capacitors
(iii) inductor
(iv) Signal generator
(v) Oscilloscope

Theory:

RLC circuits are widely used in a variety of applications such as filters in communications
systems, ignition systems in automobiles, defibrillator circuits in biomedical applications, etc.
The analysis of RLC circuits is more complex than of the RC circuits we have seen in the
previous lab. RLC circuits have a much richer and interesting response than the previously
studied RC or RL circuits.

Damping:

Damping is caused by the resistance in the circuit. It determines whether or not the circuit will
resonate naturally (that is, without a driving source). Circuits which will resonate in this way are
described as under damped and those that will not are over damped. Damping attenuation
(symbol α) is measured in nipper per second. However, the unit less damping factor (symbol ζ,
zeta) is often a more useful measure, which is related to α by

The special case of ζ = 1 is called critical damping and represents the case of a circuit that is just
on the border of oscillation. It is the minimum damping that can be applied without causing
oscillation.
A summary of the response is given below.

Let’s assume a series RLC circuit as is shown in Figure 1. The discussion is also applicable to
other RLC circuits such as the parallel circuit.

Figure 6.1: Series RLC circuit

By writing KVL one gets a second order differential equation. The solution consists of two parts:

x (t) = xn (t) + xp (t),

In which xn (t) is the complementary solution (=solution of the homogeneous differential

equation also called the natural response) and an xp (t) is the particular solution (also called
forced response). Let’s focus on the complementary solution. The form of this solution depends
on the roots of the characteristic equation,

(1)
in which is the damping ratio and is the undamped resonant frequency. The roots of the
quadratic equation are equal to,

(1b)

For the example of the series RLC circuit one has the following characteristic equation for the
current iL (t) or vC (t),

s2 + R/L.s + 1/LC =0. (2)

From (1) and (2)

2𝜌𝜔𝑛 = R/L
 𝜔𝑛 = 1/𝐿𝐶
Depending on the value of the damping ratio one has three possible cases:
Case 1: Critically damped response: two equal roots s= s1= s2

(3)

The total response consists of the sum of the complementary and the particular solution. The case
of a critically damped response to a unit input step function is shown in Figure 2.
Case 2: Over damped response: two real and unequal roots s1 and s2

(4)
Figure 2 show an over damped response to a unit input step function.

Figure 6.2: Critically and over damped response to a unit input step function.

Case 3: Under damped response: two complex roots

(5)
Figure 3 shows an under damped response to a unit input step function
. Figure 6.3: Under damped response to a unit input step function.
The current response will be:
i(t)=A1 es1t +A2 es2t for ω2n < α2 (over damped)
i(t)=B1 e−αt cos ωd t+B2 e−αt sin ωd t for ω2n > α2 (under damped)
i(t)=D1 e−αt t +D2 e−αtt for ω2n = α2 (critically damped)

Where:
α = 𝜌𝜔𝑛 =is neper frequency or damping factor.
ωn = resonant frequency.

Similarly, we can obtain the voltage across the capacitor vc(t) in the form of three different damped
solutions, again by applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the same RLC circuit.
The following figure shows plots of these responses for a source free circuit.

Experimental procedure:
1. By using the value of R= ___ ohm, L= ___ mH, C= ___ 𝜇F, V=10 V
Calculate 𝜌, 𝜔𝑛 , 𝑠1 , 𝑠2 , 𝑖(𝑡)?

1
𝜔𝑛 = = _______________________________________________________
√𝐿𝐶
 𝑅
𝜌 = 2𝐿𝜔 = _______________________________________________________
𝑛

|𝑠1 𝑠2 | = −𝜌𝜔𝑛 ± 𝑖𝜔𝑛 √1 − 𝜌2

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Using this formula calculate the value of i(t)

i(t)=𝑘1 𝑒 𝑠1𝑡 +𝑘2 𝑒 𝑠2𝑡
______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

Now from above expression of i(t) discuss nature of response

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

2. using the value of R=___ohm, L=___mH, C=___𝜇F, V=10 V

Calculate 𝜌, 𝜔𝑛 , 𝑠1 , 𝑠2 , 𝑖(𝑡)?
1
𝜔𝑛 = = _______________________________________________________
√𝐿𝐶

𝑅
𝜌 = 2𝐿𝜔 = _______________________________________________________
𝑛

|𝑠1 𝑠2 | = −𝜌𝜔𝑛 ± 𝑖𝜔𝑛 √1 − 𝜌2

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Using this formula calculate the value of i(t)

i(t)=𝑘1 𝑒 𝑠1𝑡 +𝑘2 𝑒 𝑠2𝑡
______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Now from above expression of i(t) discuss nature of response

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

3. Draw a graph on excel which will be our calculated waveform make a print and attach
with manual.
4. Simulate the RLC circuit (which is given below) using Multisim software .the response
will be of like fig which is given below.
 Fig (show under damped response of RLC circuit)

5. Use a square wave with 10Vpp (i.e. amplitude of 5V with offset of 5V - use the function
generator) and frequency of 50 Hz as input voltage. Compare the waveforms with the one
you calculated. Make a print out.

Discuss your observation.

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
EXPERIMENT#5: TO STUDY THE OVERDAMPED RESPONSE OF
RLC SERIES CIRCUIT

Objectives:

(i) To study the Over damped response of RLC circuit

Components and equipment required:

(i) Resistors
(ii) Capacitors
(iii) inductor
(iv) Signal generator
(v) Oscilloscope

Theory:

RLC circuits are widely used in a variety of applications such as filters in communications
systems, ignition systems in automobiles, defibrillator circuits in biomedical applications, etc.
The analysis of RLC circuits is more complex than of the RC circuits we have seen in the
previous lab. RLC circuits have a much richer and interesting response than the previously
studied RC or RL circuits.

Damping:

Damping is caused by the resistance in the circuit. It determines whether or not the circuit
will resonate naturally (that is, without a driving source). Circuits which will resonate in this
way are described as under damped and those that will not are over damped. Damping
attenuation (symbol α) is measured in nipper per second. However, the unit less damping
factor (symbol ζ, zeta) is often a more useful measure, which is related to α by

The special case of ζ > 1 is called over damping and represents the case of a circuit that is just
increased on the border of oscillation.

A summary of the response is given below.

Let’s assume a series RLC circuit as is shown in Figure 1. The discussion is also applicable to
other RLC circuits such as the parallel circuit.
 Figure 6.1: Series RLC circuit

By writing KVL one gets a second order differential equation. The solution consists of two
parts:

x (t) = xn (t) + xp (t),

In which xn (t) is the complementary solution (=solution of the homogeneous differential

equation also called the natural response) and an xp (t) is the particular solution (also called
forced response). Let’s focus on the complementary solution. The form of this solution
depends on the roots of the characteristic equation,

(1)
in which is the damping ratio and is the undamped resonant frequency. The roots of the
quadratic equation are equal to,

(1b)

For the example of the series RLC circuit one has the following characteristic equation for
the current iL (t) or vC (t),

s2 + R/L.s + 1/LC =0. (2)

From (1) and (2)

2𝜌𝜔𝑛 = R/L
𝜔𝑛 = 1/𝐿𝐶
Depending on the value of the damping ratio one has three possible cases:
Case 1: Critically damped response: two equal roots s= s1= s2

(3)

The total response consists of the sum of the complementary and the particular solution. The
case of a critically damped response to a unit input step function is shown in Figure 2.
Case 2: Over damped response: two real and unequal roots s1 and s2

(4)
Figure 2 show an over damped response to a unit input step function.

Figure 6.2: Critically and over damped response to a unit input step function.

Case 3: Under damped response: two complex roots

(5)
Figure 3 shows an under damped response to a unit input step function

. Figure 6.3: Under damped response to a unit input step function.

The current response will be:
i(t)=A1 es1 t +A2 es2 t for ω2n < α2 (over damped)
i(t)=B1 e−αt cos ωd t+B2 e−αt sin ωd t for ω2n > α2 (under damped)
i(t)=D1 e−αt t +D2 e−αtt for ω2n = α2 (critically damped)

Where:
α = 𝜌𝜔𝑛 =is neper frequency or damping factor.
ωn = resonant frequency.

Similarly, we can obtain the voltage across the capacitor vc(t) in the form of three different
damped solutions, again by applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the same RLC circuit.
The following figure shows plots of these responses for a source free circuit.
Experimental procedure:

1. By using the value of R= ___ ohm, L= ___ mH, C= ___ 𝜇F, V=10 V
Calculate 𝜌, 𝜔𝑛 , 𝑠1 , 𝑠2 , 𝑖(𝑡)?

1
𝜔𝑛 = = _______________________________________________________
√𝐿𝐶

𝑅
𝜌 = 2𝐿𝜔 = _______________________________________________________
𝑛

|𝑠1 𝑠2 | = −𝜌𝜔𝑛 ± 𝜔𝑛 √𝜌2 − 1

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

Using this formula calculate the value of i(t)

i(t)=𝑘1 𝑒 𝑠1𝑡 +𝑘2 𝑒 𝑠2𝑡
___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________
 Now from above expression of i(t) discuss nature of response
___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

Discuss your observation.

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________
EXPERIMENT#6: TO STUDY THE CRITICALLY DAMPED
RESPONSE OF RLC SERIES CIRCUIT

Objectives:

(i) To study the critically damped response of RLC circuit

Components and equipment required:

(i) Resistors
(ii) Capacitors
(iii) inductor
(iv) Signal generator
(v) Oscilloscope

Theory:

RLC circuits are widely used in a variety of applications such as filters in communications
systems, ignition systems in automobiles, defibrillator circuits in biomedical applications, etc.
The analysis of RLC circuits is more complex than of the RC circuits we have seen in the
previous lab. RLC circuits have a much richer and interesting response than the previously
studied RC or RL circuits.

Damping:

Damping is caused by the resistance in the circuit. It determines whether or not the circuit
will resonate naturally (that is, without a driving source). Circuits which will resonate in this
way are described as under damped and those that will not are over damped. Damping
attenuation (symbol α) is measured in nipper per second. However, the unit less damping
factor (symbol ζ, zeta) is often a more useful measure, which is related to α by

A system is called critically damped if damping ration for the system is exactly one. Here
system shows the tendencies to come to equilibrium as quickly as possible without damping.
Like automatic door and window closer mechanisms, they promptly come to original
positions without showing any further oscillations. It is the limit if damping ratio is reduced
overshooting this limit then system will show oscillating equilibrium

Let’s assume a series RLC circuit as is shown in Figure 1. The discussion is also applicable to
other RLC circuits such as the parallel circuit.
 Figure 6.1: Series RLC circuit

By writing KVL one gets a second order differential equation. The solution consists of two
parts:

x (t) = xn (t) + xp (t),

In which xn (t) is the complementary solution (=solution of the homogeneous differential

equation also called the natural response) and an xp (t) is the particular solution (also called
forced response). Let’s focus on the complementary solution. The form of this solution
depends on the roots of the characteristic equation,

(1)
in which is the damping ratio and is the undamped resonant frequency. The roots of the
quadratic equation are equal to,

(1b)

For the example of the series RLC circuit one has the following characteristic equation for
the current iL (t) or vC (t),

s2 + R/L.s + 1/LC =0. (2)

From (1) and (2)

2𝜌𝜔𝑛 = R/L
𝜔𝑛 = 1/𝐿𝐶
Depending on the value of the damping ratio one has three possible cases:
Case 1: Critically damped response: two equal roots s= s1= s2

(3)

The total response consists of the sum of the complementary and the particular solution. The
case of a critically damped response to a unit input step function is shown in Figure 2.
Case 2: Over damped response: two real and unequal roots s1 and s2

(4)
Figure 2 show an over damped response to a unit input step function.

Figure 6.2: Critically and over damped response to a unit input step function.

Case 3: Under damped response: two complex roots

(5)
Figure 3 shows an under damped response to a unit input step function

. Figure 6.3: Under damped response to a unit input step function.

The current response will be:
i(t)=A1 es1 t +A2 es2 t for ω2n < α2 (over damped)
i(t)=B1 e−αt cos ωd t+B2 e−αt sin ωd t for ω2n > α2 (under damped)
i(t)=D1 e−αt t +D2 e−αtt for ω2n = α2 (critically damped)

Where:
α = 𝜌𝜔𝑛 =is neper frequency or damping factor.
ωn = resonant frequency.

Similarly, we can obtain the voltage across the capacitor vc(t) in the form of three different
damped solutions, again by applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the same RLC circuit.
The following figure shows plots of these responses for a source free circuit.
Experimental procedure:

1. By using the value of R= 4 ohm, L=0.5 H, C= 0.125 F, V=10 V

Calculate 𝜌, 𝜔𝑛 , 𝑠1 , 𝑠2 , 𝑖(𝑡)?

1
𝜔𝑛 = = _______________________________________________________
√𝐿𝐶

𝑅
𝜌 = 2𝐿𝜔 = _______________________________________________________
𝑛

|𝑠1 𝑠2 | = −𝜌𝜔𝑛
___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

Using this formula calculate the value of i(t)

i(t)=𝑘1 𝑒 𝑠1𝑡 +𝑘2 𝑡𝑒 𝑠2𝑡
___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________
 Now from above expression of i(t) discuss nature of response
___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

Discuss your observation.

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________
EXPERIMENT#7: To Study the Laplace Transform Calculation

Objectives:

(i) To study about the Laplace Transform and how to calculate it.

Theory:

Due to existence of cause and effect relationship between input and output of a system, it is
possible to define the transfer function of a given system mathematically. Generally, it
characterizes the input-output relationship of the system.
Transfer function is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of output response to the
Laplace transform of input (excitation) assuming all the initial condition to be zero.

R(s) C(s)
g(t) G(s)
r(t) c(t)

(a) System in time domain (b) System in Laplace domain

If G(s) be the transfer function of the system, we can write mathematically

𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

𝐺 (𝑠 ) = (∗ 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜)
𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

𝐶(𝑠)
𝐺(𝑠) = (∗ 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜)
𝑅(𝑠)

Let i(t) be the current in the circuit, using KVL (Kirchhoff’s Voltage law) we can solve it
Find its equation and then transfer function?

Find its equation and then transfer function?

EXPERIMENT#8: To Study The Poles and Zeros Mapping

Objectives:

(i) To study about the mapping of the Poles and Zeros in Matlab Software.

Theory:

After calculating the transfer function of the system, nest step is mapping in s-domain and z
domain. We are dealing with s domain so that

𝐾(𝑠 − 𝑏1 )(𝑠 − 𝑏2 ) … . . (𝑠 − 𝑏𝑚 )
𝐺(𝑠) =
(𝑠 − 𝑎1 )(𝑠 − 𝑎2 ) … . . (𝑠 − 𝑎𝑛 )
Where K is the gain factor,
Zeros of the transfer function is defined as the values of the s for which the magnitude of the
transfer function becomes zero. If the zeros of a transfer fuction are not repeated, they are
known as simple zeros.
Poles of a transfer function are defined as the values of s for which the magnitude of the
transfer function becomes infinity. If the poles of a transfer function are not repeated, they are
known as simple poles. If the poles of a transfer function repeated, they are termed as
multiple poles.
There are two axes of a s-plane known as the real axis and the imaginary axis, respectively.
Again s=σ+jω. Therefore the σ-axis stands for the real axis and the jω-axis stands for the
imaginary axis. The values of σ are plotted along the real axis as the values of jω are plotted
along the imaginary axis. Simply pole and zero are represented by X and O, respectively.
Repeated Poles and zeros are represented by repeated X and O, respectively.

4(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 + 2.5)2

𝐺(𝑠) =
(𝑠 + 6)(𝑠 + 4)2

Poles are at s=-6 and s=-4. Pole at s=-6 is simple pole, whereas the pole at s=-4 is multiple
pole of order of 2.
Zeros are at s=-2 and s=-2.5. Zero at s=-2 is simple whereas the zero at
s=-2.5 is multiple zero of order 3.
Calculate the zeros and poles mapping through Matlab.
𝑆 2 +0.2𝑆−0.15
i) 𝐺(𝑠) = 𝑆 4 − 0.6𝑆 3 − 0.19𝑆 2 + 0.14𝑆−0.018

2𝑆 4 + 16𝑆 3 + 44𝑆 2 +56𝑆−32

ii) 𝐺(𝑠) = 3𝑆 4 + 3𝑆 3 − 15𝑆 2 + 18𝑆−12

2𝑆 4 + 5𝑆 3 + 9𝑆 2 +5𝑆−3
iii) 𝐺(𝑠) = 5𝑆 4 + 45𝑆 3 − 2𝑆 2 + 𝑆−1

Hint :
Matlab Code:
num=[2 5 9 5 3]
den=[5 45 2 1 1]
h=tf(num,den)
pzmap(h)
grid on
EXPERIMENT#9 To Study Three phase power measurement and star delta
connection

Objectives:

(i) To study about three phase power and star delta connection

Theory:

In this experiment, we will measure the three phase power through wattmeter. We can use star
and delta connections for accomplishment of our task.
Two wattmeter method is used for the three wire star and delta three phase balanced or
unbalanced load. In two wattmeter method, the current coil of the wattmeter is connected in
series of any line R and Y but potential coil is common between R and B, Y and B described in
the figure mentioned below.

Now we implement the above arrangement in the Multisim software to find out results from the
three phase star or delta connections.
Now we will discuss the star and delta connection with details.

Star Connection:
In star connection, the starting ends or finishing ends are of three coils are
connected together to form the neutral point and other ends are joined to the line wires.

Line Voltage
Phase Voltage
Delta connection:
Delta connection is also called three phase three wire system. It is very prefer
system for the transmission rather than distribution system. In delta connection, starting ends of
three phases or coils are connected in series to form close mesh or circuit and three wires taken
out from the three junctions.

Line Voltage
Phase Voltage
 Lab Manual: Electrical Network Analysis (EF-2203P)
Name: Roll#

EXPERIMENT#lO: TO STUDY THE LEADING BEHAVIOR OF

CAPACITANCE

Objective:
~ To study the leading behavior of capacitance.

Components and Equipment required:

(i) Resistor
(ii) Signal generator
(iii) Capacitor
(iv) Oscilloscope

Theory:
A sinusoidal voltage is applied to RC series circuit, the capacitor will alternately charge
and discharge at a rate determined by the frequency of the supply. Then capacitors in AC circuits
are constantly charging and discharging respectively.

Figure 10.1: RC series circuit

When switchis closed the current flows through capacitor and the voltage across the capacitor
increases as the charge on its plates increases. As the sinusoidal supply voltage reaches its 90
degree point on the waveform it begins to slow down and for a very short time the potential
difference across the plates is neither increasing nor decreasing therefore the current decreases to
zero as there is no rate of voltage change. At this 90 degree point the potential difference across
the capacitor is at its maximum, no current flows into the capacitor as the capacitor is now fully
charged and its plates saturated with electrons.

Then the supply voltage begins to decrease in a negative direction down towards the zero
reference line at 180 degree. Although the supply voltage is still positive in nature the capacitor
starts to discharge some of its excess electrons on its plates in an effort to maintain a constant
voltage. This results in the capacitor current flowing in the opposite or negative direction.

When the supply voltage waveform crosses the zero reference axis point at instant 180, the rate
of change or slope of the sinusoidal supply voltage is at its maximum but in a negative direction,
consequently the current flowing into the capacitor is also at its maximum rate at that instant.
Also at this 180 degree point the potential difference across the plates is zero as the amount of
charge is equally distributed between the two plates.

Page 59
 Lab Manual: Electrical Network Analysis (EF-2203P)
Name: Roll#

Capacitive Reactance:
~ The reactance of a capacitor is called Capacitive Reactance.

Impedance:
Impedance, Z is the "TOTAL" oppositiOn to current flowing m an AC circuit that
contains both Resistance and Reactance.

Impedance, Z = i R
,__
I

z Xc

:. Z2 = R 2 +X~
Vector Diagram Voltage Triangle

A B VR (I .R)
I
I
I
I
Vc I Vc(I.-Xc)
I
I
I

c -------------0 v
I
)(J) D

v v
.. I= ~R2 +X~ z

Preparation:
To study the leading behavior of capacitance of RC series circuit, consider the circuit in the
figure. Determine Xc, I and V according to the given vales of resistance, capacitance and
frequency.

Equipment setting:
• Function generator type of waveform: sinusoidal wave.
• Oscilloscope external trigger: from the SYNC out terminal of the function generator.

Procedure to observe the leading behavior of capacitance:

• Install the power supply and data acquisition module in the EMS workstation.

Page 61
 Lab Manual: Electrical Network Analysis (EF-2203P)
Name: Rc!!ff

Then during this first half cycle 0 to 180 degree, the applied voltage reaches its maximum
positive value a quarter (1/4/) of a cycle after the current reaches its maximum positive value, in
other words, a voltage applied to a purely capacitive circuit "LAGS" the current by a quarter of a
cycle or 90° as shown below.
1 v,m = v .... sin(.,t t qo•) J
-::;:--·--r~~;,~·=-~~~~n(.t).·j

Figure I 0.2: Vc and Ic Waveform

During the second half cycle 180 to 360 degree; the supply voltage reverses direction and heads
towards its negative peak value at 270 degree. At this point the potential difference across the
plates is neither decreasing nor increasing and the current decreases to zero. The potential
difference across the capacitor is at its maximum negative value, no current flows into the
capacitor and it becomes fully charged the same as at its 90 degree point but in the opposite
direction.

As the negative supply voltage begins to increase in a positive direction towards the 360 degree
point on the zero reference line, the fully charged capacitor must now loose some of its excess
electrons to maintain a constant voltage as before and starts to discharge itself until the supply
voltage reaches zero at 360 degree at which the process of charging and discharging starts over
again.

From the voltage and current waveforms and description above, we can see that the current is
always leading the voltage by 114 of a cycle or pi/2"out-of-phase" with the potential difference
across the capacitor because of this charging and discharging process.

Phasor Diagram:
This effect can also be represented by a phasor diagram where in a purely capacitive circuit the
voltage "LAGS" the current by 90°. But by using the voltage as our reference, we can also say
that the current "LEADS" the voltage by one quarter of a cycle or 90° as shown in the vector
diagram below.

Figure I 0.3: Phasor diagram

Page 60
Lab Manual: Electrical Network Analysis (EF-2203P)
Name: Roll#

EXPERIMENT# ll: TO STUDY THE LAGGING BEHAVIOR OF

INDUCTANCE
Objective:
• To study the lagging behavior of inductance.

Components and Equipments required:

• Inductor
• Oscilloscope
• Function generator
• Resistor

Theory:
If a circuit contains an alternating current source, an Inductor and a resistor, as show in the figure
10.1 then the flow of current through an inductor behaves differently to that of a steady state DC
voltage. Now in an AC circuit, the opposition to the current flowing through the coils windings
not only depends upon the inductance of the coil but also the frequency of the applied voltage
waveform as it varies from its positive to negative values.

Figure 11.1 : RL series circuit with AC source

The actual opposition to the current flowing through a coil in an AC circuit is determined by the
AC Resistance of the coil with this AC resistance being represented by a complex number. But
to distinguish a DC resistance value from an AC resistance value, which is also known as
Impedance, the term Reactance is used.

Inductive reactance:

Like resistance, reactance is measured in Ohm's but is given the symbol "X" to distinguish it
from a purely resistive "R" value and as the component in question is an inductor, the reactance
of an inductor is called Inductive Reactance, ( XL ) and is measured in Ohms. Its value can be
found from the formula.

XL·= 2:n::fL

When the switch is closed this sinusoidal voltage will cause a current to flow and rise from zero
to its maximum value. This rise or change in the current will induce a magnetic field within the
coil which in tum will oppose or restrict this change in the current.

Page 64
Lab Manual: Electrical Network Analysis (EF-2203P)
Name: Roll#

But before the current has had time to reach its maximum value as it would in a DC circuit, the
voltage changes polarity causing the current to change direction. This change in the other
direction once again being delayed by the self-induced back emf in the coil, and in a circuit
containing a pure inductance only, the current is delayed by 90°.

The applied voltage reaches its maximum positive value a quarter ( 114/) of a cycle earlier than
the current reaches its maximum positive value, in other words, a voltage applied to a purely
inductive circuit "LEADS" the current by a quarter of a cycle or 90° as shown below, as shown
in the fig.2.

Figure 11.2: VL and VR wave form

Phasor diagram:

This effect can also be represented by a phasor diagram were in a purely inductive circuit the
voltage "LEADS" the current by 90°. But by using the voltage as our reference, we can also say
that the current "LAGS" the voltage by one quarter of a cycle or 90° as shown in the vector
diagram below in fig.3.

Figure 11.3: Phasor diagram

Page 65
Lab Manual: Electrical Network Analysis (EF-2203P)
Name: Roll#

Impedance of RL series circuit:

Impedance, Z is the "TOTAL" opposition to current flowing in an AC circuit that contains both
Resistance, ( the real part ) and Reactance ( the imaginary part ). Impedance also has the units of
Ohms, O's.

Im.pe.dance, Z = t

v,..{t.R}

Vector Diagram Vollage Triangle

v-
'?
= v·R '?
+ v L2

V = ,J(I.R)2 + (TXL) 2

. I=-· V
·· ~R 2 + x£
Preparation:

To study the lagging behavior of inductance of RL series circuit, consider the circuit in the
figure. Determine XL, I and V according to the given values of resistance, inductance and
frequency.

Equipment setting:

• Function generator type of waveform: sinusoidal wave.

• Oscilloscope external trigger: from the SYNC out terminal of terminal of the function
generator.

Page 66
Lab Manual: Electrical Network Analysis (EF-2203P)
Name: Roll#

Procedure to observe the lagging behavior of inductance:

• Install the power supply and data acquisition model in EMS workstation.
• Make sure the main power supply is set to the 0(oft) position and the output control knob
in turned fully ccw. Ensure the power supply is a sinusoidal supply.
• To avoid the ground conflicts with the equipment, connect the inductor to positive
terminal of the function generator and resistor to the negative terminal (it is series circuit
so the order of connection is irrelevant). Connect the oscilloscope probe of channel 1
across the function generator and probe of channel 2 across the inductor. And observe
waveform and phase difference.
• Then connect resistor across channel 2 instead of inductor and observe the waveform and
phase difference.
• If necessary, select convenient vertical scales for the amplitude and use V in as the
reference waveform for phase shift measurement.

Answer the following questions:

• How many degrees separate the voltage on

VR from Vin= - - - - -

VL from Vin= _ _ _ __
• Is the voltage VR leading or lagging Vin?

• Is the voltage Vc leading or lagging Vin?

• Change the time base settings on the oscilloscope to increase the number of cycles
displayed. Does the amount of phase shift between the waveform changes?
YES or NO?

• Change the vertical scale settings on the oscilloscope. Does the amount of phase shift
between the waveforms change?
YES or NO?

• Ensure the power supply is turned off, the voltage control is fully c.c.w, and remove all
leads and cables.

Page 67
Lab Manual: Electrical Network Analysis (EF-2203P)
Name: Roll#

REVIEW QUESTIONS:

• In an ac circuit with inductive reactance, the

a) The phase angle of circuit is always 45
b) Voltage across the inductance must be 90 out of phase with the applied voltage
c) Current through the inductor lags the induced voltage by 90
d) Current through the inductance and voltage across it are180 out of phase

• When drawing graphs of the current through the inductor and voltage across the inductor
as function of time.
a) The voltage across the inductor must be zero and increasing
b) The voltage across the inductor must be zero and decreasing
c) The voltage across the inductor must be positive and momentarily constant
d) The voltage across the inductor must be negative and momentarily constant

Discuss your Observations:

Page 68
Lab Manual: Electrical Network Analysis (EF-2203P)
N~e: ~00

EXPERIMENT#l2: TO STUDY _RESONANCE FREQUENCY OF RLC

SERIES CIRCUIT

Objective:
» To study the resonance frequency ofRLC series circuit.
Components and Equipment required:
(v) Resistor
(vi) Signal generator
(vii) Capacitor
(viii) Oscilloscope
(ix) Inductor

Theory:
In a series RLC circuit there becomes a frequency point were the inductive reactance of the
inductor becomes equal in value to the capacitive reactance of the capacitor. In other words,
XL= Xc. The point at which this occurs is called the Resonant Frequency point, (fr) of the
circuit, and as we are analyzing a series RLC circuit this resonance frequency produces a Series
Resonance.
Series Resonance circuits are one of the most important circuits used electrical and electronic
circuits. They can be found in various forms such as in AC mains filters, noise filters and also in
radio and television tuning circuits producing a very selective tuning circuit for the receiving of
the different frequency channels. The series RLC circuit is shown in the figure.

R L c

Vm L9

Figure 12.1: RLC series circuit

• Inductive reactance: X;. :::: 2r: f L == (!)L

• Capacitive reactance: X.. :::: -

'· 2r:fC
1
- = -wC1-
• When X .> X~ the circuit is Inductive
• When X: > X~ the circuit is Capacitive
• Total circuit reactance = X~ .
=X - X~..
:.... '
or X. - X
:.,

• Total circuit impedance = Z = ~ R .,_X.~

2
= R - jX

Page 69
Lab Manual: Electrical Network Analysis (EF-2203P)
N~: ~M

Inductive reactance is Directly Proportional to input frequency and is stnall at low frequencies
and high at higher frequencies.
XUfl

The graph of inductive reactance against

3 frequency is a straight line linear curve. The
c
inductive reactance value of an inductor
tJ
•• increases linearly as the frequency across it
a:. increases. Therefore, inductive reactance is
positive and is directly proportional to
frequency ( XL oc f)
0
Frequency. I
Figure12.2:XL vs. frequency
Capacitive reactance is "Inversely proportional" to frequency for any given value of
capacitance
Xw}
The graph of capacitive reactance against
frequency is a hyperbolic curve. The
c
5 Reactance value of a capacitor has a very
•
tJ high value at low frequencies but quickly
•
a:.• decreases as the frequency across it
increases. Therefore, capacitive reactance is
negative and is inversely proportional to
0
frequency ( Xc oc f -l )
Frequency. I
Figure 12.3: XC \IS. f

The senes resonance frequency point, as shown below.

Capacitive
XTtfl
.. Xc .> XL
l

Inductive and Capacitive

Reactances are eq.ult here

0 Frequency. I
( /r)
Series Resonance

Figure 12.4: Series resonance

Page 70
Lab Manual: Electrical Network Analysis (EF-2203P)
Name: Roll#

At resonance XL is equal to Xc, so:

1
2;::/L = - -.-
. 2-rc/C

1
·4~'~,·-·c·c

At resonance frequency the two reactances are equal and cancelling each other, the two voltages
representing V L and Vc must also be opposite and equal in value thereby cancelling each other
out so they behave like a short circuit as shown below.
Either side of resonance At resonance 1he voltage
1he vatage drop = VL - Vc drop equals zero

,___I*..._.x__ 00 ----......,#
Figure 12.5: RLC series circuit at resonance
Since the current flowing through a series resonance circuit is the product of voltage divided by
impedance, at resonance the impedance, Z is at its minimum value, ( =R ). Therefore, the circuit
current at this frequency will be at its maximum value of V/R as shown below.
I

v
x- rc I• V
4

0
Series Resonance

Figure 12.6: Maximum current at resonance

Page 71
 Lab Manual: Electrical Network Analysis (EF-2203P)
Name: Roll#

Preparation:
To study the resonance frequency of RLC series circuit, consider the circuit in the figure.
Determine frequencys and Imax according to the given vales of resistance, capacitance and
inductance.

Equipment setting:
• Function generator type of waveform: sinusoidal wave.
• Oscilloscope external trigger: from the SYNC out terminal of the function generator.

Procedure to observe the leading behavior of capacitance:

• Install the power supply and data acquisition module in the EMS workstation.

• Make sure the main power Supply is set to the 0 (off) position and that the output control
knob is turned fully ccw. Ensure the power supply is a sinusoidal supply.

• To avoid the ground conflicts with the equipment, connect the capacitor to the positive
terminal of the function generator and resistor to the negative terminal (it is a series
circuit so the order of connection is irrelevant). Connect the oscilloscope prob of channel-
1 across the function generator and prob of channel-2 across the capacitor and inductor.
Then vary the frequency so that the voltage drop across capacitor and inductor become
zero.

• Then connect resistor across channel-2 instead of capacitor and inductor and observe the
voltage drop across it.

• Take the snap shots and of voltage across capacitor and inductor and resistor and the
input waveform.

• Ensure the power supply is turned off, the voltage control is fully c.c.w, and remove all
leads and cables.

• Is the measured frequency and calculated are same? YES or NO

Calculations:
Use the formula of resonance frequency and show that inductive reactance and capacitive
reactance cancel out each other effect at calculated frequency.

Page 72
Lab Manual: Electrical Network Analysis (EF-2203P)
Name: Roll#

Find the maximum current?

Observations:

Page 73