t|NHIST(lRICAL

LITERACY:
LEARNING
TtlTHINK
LIKEHISTORIANS
lévesque
Stéphane proJess0r
isassociate 0fhisioryeducation
anddirect0rthe
Virtual
History
LabattheUniversity
ol 0ttawa.
Hisresearch
focuses
0nhistofical
thinking, andcomputer
literacy, ir history
techfology educatiof.

Knowing
histofy
ismore
complexthan
masterifg
historicalfacts. a particulaf
lt necessitates mode
0fengagement
withhist0ry.
Thispaper
ooksatwhatit means
tobecone
historically
literate
using Carad
anhistoranTimCookasanexample.

nÉsumÉ
'hlstoire
Lefaitdecomprendre estplus quedeconfaître
complexe desfaits
histofiq!es.
Cela fécessteunmode d'engagement
pafticulier
avecI'histo cequec0mprendfe
re.Cetexteexamine historiquement enutilisant'historien
signlfie TimC00k
canadien
enexemple.

Whâl should history students know i\,hen they
gmduatcironllrhigh school?Il\e O tatio lznchert'Manual
for Historyof l915indicrt€s thrt "histofyis usurllycrlle.d.r
'rnelnofy'subjcct,rnd is,rccordingly oftcn trught as,rmerc
memofizinB01'l'ùcts,nâmes,ând dates.")Surely,tor û'ost
educatofstoday meûrorizingaontent knowledgeis no
Longerân âdequat€answerto this fundan€rlal questior
thât hâs puzzledschoolsând societylor ovcf â centufy.
Nowadays, th€fe is widespreÂd talks and beliefiir "critical
thinking," "skills" and "literâcy".rs overurching goalsol
educàtion.Yet, thcre is not àlwaysagrcêmcntns to what
these m€àn.ln Ontffio, the Nlinistry of EducàtiônhÀs
respondedwith a series of documenis aDcl reports,
includingresourcepackâges to help studeDis"developâs
fully litefâtereàders, writers,ralkers,!nd think€rs."r
Despite lhe value ol âll ihese, nuch of whai is
(urrertly àvâilàbleon 'tross-cufriculàr literàcy"only
seNesto obscurefundamertàldifièrencesin disci inrry
expeftise- or whât my colleaguePefryKlein refefsto as
.oDtentliteracy.rTo clâin, for iùstm.e, thât leârningto
readin math€maticsrenrforcesihe abiliiy to reâdhisiory
suggestsvery n.riveepistemologicàl distinctionsbetween
domanrsofknowledgeand alsonawedâssumptioùs aboùt
lextmeàning.5As SamWinebufgrightlyobserves, "in our
zeâ]to arrive rt ov€rarchingmodeisof r€âding,w€ ofren
ignore quâlities of the text that give it shape ând
meânirg."" Although sharing some common symbot
systens,understândingin history and understandingin
mathematicsor iù literatureposeradicallydifièrentchal-
'lhc proccss
of disciplinrry hoDrogenizâiion,which
lcadstealhersto usea cohmonr,ar"hrd,ând sel ofstfâte-
gi€s âcfoss subjccts, prevonts siudcrts from taking
adv.rniagc ofthe disciplines.Hcr€it is importantto diltèr-
cntiaic bctwccn"subjcctJ'ancl"disciplin€s."Subjectsare
orgânizeddepartmentsof knowledgcdcviscdlbr *ruc-
lurirg schedulesând rssessinglcaming objcctivcs.
I)isciplinesconsist of "approachcsdeviscd by scholÂfs
ove! the ceDturiesiD ofder io âddressessentiàlquestions,
issucs,Ànd phcnomcnr drâwn lrom the ratural and
humàn worlds."r Îcy irrcludc distinctive nethods of
inquiry,theoreticalframework,nctworksof conccptsand
idens,symbolssystens âl1d nodes of repfesentâtions,
History, wiih lil of th€serelinelnenls,is that discidine
which se€ksto ûràkeserNeofthe p!st. l"lisioryis not the
pâstj rather il is the processrnd lhe result of màking
lneâning out ofbitsandfrâgmenis ofthe pâst.
TITERACY
AI{I} EXPERÏIST
DISCIPI.II.IARY
Lit€rlcy is lhe àbility to r€àd, wfite, ànd rhink criti-
câily âbout n rànge of medià including print texls,
imrges, and clectronic tcxts. lt is r cognitive ând sociâl
"essential
practice, ân tool for personâl growrh ând
a c t i v ep â r t i c i p â t i o ni n à d e m o c r a t i cs o c i c t y . " rB e c o n i n g
lit€ràte is critic{l in this inlormârion agc and it is no
surprise thât the ontârio curriculum p]Àces greàt
emphasis on early literacy instruction and progressioDin
reading and writing.'
Yet despite signiûcant progress in stuclenls
perlormance in stândârd literacy tcsts (EQAO fesùlts

2002 2008), the.€ is still no cl€ar evid€ncc of improvc
ment in students' abiliiy to rcad, write, interpret, or
think criticâlly in history. Parr of the probtem has bcen
oùr inabilitl to teach "historicàl lirerâc)-." Fof Tony
Taytor, bccoming literaie in history necessitates a rànge
of âbilities and understandings r€quircd to gnsp rhe
nâture of histo.)'."r0flirty yeafs of rescarch in the {ictd
has showD that expertisc iir histo.y disciplinary
coirpetence is couDter-inruirivc, best crLltivatcd \îhen
s t u d e D t s( 1 ) u n d e r s t â n dh i s t o r y â n d ( 2 ) u n d e r s t â n dt h e
Studcnts come to school u,ith powerful bcliefs and
stories about the pàst. Thcse so-called "cotrxùon-sense
id€as acquifcd,rl home, in the mediâ or in everyday lifb
experienccs,are gradùally ch.rllenscd in highef lcarning
by somc more complex and scicntific ones.,, tiut does
public cducation feally chàlleùge lcàfnefs to replùce rhese
intuitive ideas {'ith more wàrrànted ones às produced by
histofians? A central principle of hisrory cducation
coDtinLLesto be thâi students need a firm ground of
i(nowl€dgc dborLt thc pùst (Âroùrd rh€ conlnrunity, rhc
nati r, demo(racy, ctc.) to bo competent - and ultimatcly
lllrt histori€àl uDcterstandingis Droro compt€x than
understânding rhe substâncê o l t h ( ' p a s t ,i . e . ,t h c s t â g n r n t
picccs of lncls. As Perer Soixas contends, students afc
c x p o s c dt o . r v a r i c t y o l c o n t l i c t i n g h i s r o r i c â l. r c c o u r t s
(insidc and outsidc th€ school) and 'îccd thc nle.us k)
nssess thc rohtive strcDgths rnd wcrknesses or rnese
inlefpr€tûtions."'r Translofming studcrk' nltuitivc icleas
i n d e q u i p p i n gt h e m w i t h t h e t o o l s t o m a k e s e I l s eo r r n e
prst rcccssit.te whût Peter Lcc cÀlls procedural
knowlcdge - or'lnetâhistorical" knowlcdgc.'r UDlike the
bstance ol thc pàst, this knowledge shapcs ttre way we
go aboul doiDg histofy. Whât m.rkes hisrorirns expcrts is
noL only, of so nrùch, their vasi knowledge of historical
perio.ts but theif sophisticâted bclicfs .rbotri hisrofy ân.l
. r i t i c â l u s e o f k e y . o r l c c p r s l i l e c v i d e n c e ,h i s i ô f i c â t
eùpâthy, and narrâtive. Instead ôfnrjv€ly âsking "Whài is
the best story to l.nor'? histofiaDs fàcc rhe complcxity of
the pasl with sù.h furdam.ntâl questions as "How do we
know àbout the past?""Why did it hâppen?""Whâi was ir
lil€ back then?" Quesiions of this sorr engagehisroriâns
in â rescârch process of investigêting past evcnrs ancl
rl pfoducing evidence-bâsed àccounts- nris disciplinary
enterprise is dyDarnic and Devcr cotnplete, subjecr ro
I debàteand rcvision.
"REAI)ING"
FR{lM TO"I(I{()WII,IG"
|l
'nr€
HISTORY
strâicgiesro developcross-cùfriculâr x,e.â(y are
ùseful in helpmg students develop everydayskitts to read,
\vrite, and int€rpret â rànge of nedia. With sùch tech
n i q u e sa s d e c o d i n g ,s k i m m i n g , m a k i n g p r e d i . t i o n s ,a n d
OIiHISTORICÀL
TITÉRÀCYI
LEARI{ING
IO IHIIlI( LIXEHISTORIÀI1S
rerding bet$.€en thc lines, it is possible to comprehend
and eryâge more cmciently in â vafiety of 'o called
iiction and non fiction texts. Bccause of thc kind of
habits of mind it dcvelops, cross curricuH, lre.acy
promotes whât might bc .alled "proro disciplinâry,,
kDowledge, that is knovlcdge extending beyond
to include some gen€ral teatures of
higher-order thinklng.rl At this level, for instâncc,
stuclentscan feàd â varicty of rexts and nrake â distinc-
tion betnccn a historical narrativc and â Dovel or
beiwcen "facts" and "opinions." But this type of literâq
is largely inadcquate to sophisticated undcrstàndlig in
history because it does not ofiginate fton1 rhc texts and
n c t h o d s o f t h e d i s c i p l i n e .O n c c ù n n o r r c r d i h e d € v e l o p -
nrent of thc tlNA Act in the samc wày as the
developmcnt ol DNA.' lb illustratc my poinr, I will
consider an ex.rnple on world \vaf ]i Shock 'hoaps:
Ca adia,$ Iighting the Grutt \Yat by War Museun
histofian l im Cook.r'
ht Sho.k 1iôops,Cookîalloivs rhe Cânadi{n fighting
fofces during the key battlcs ofVimy Ridge,Hill70, pâss-
chcndacle,ânclthc Hundf€d Dâys canlpâign. ftrough rhc
cycs ofthe officcrs lnd soldicrslrho fought and di€d in thc
ucnchcs on lhe Wcstefn lront, .rnd bÀsed on ncwty
uncov€rectarchivîl sourccs,Cjook "presentsA ncw view of
thc Cânrdiân Cofps'brttles in thc Gfeat War," looking
w i t h î r c f f e s h i n gc y c . r t h o w t h i s s m  l l b u r ( o n c s r v e
lnilitary fofce quickly cLrrnedthc ritlc o[ "shock trcops." :
In his study, Cook rims to rcveàl th{j largcly ignor.cdyet
signiRcart contributioD of C.ln.rdns ârmy âs pari of the
È r i t i s h E x p e d i t i o n , r r yF o r c c . A w â r e o t t h c c h â l l e n g i n g
trsk làcing hirn, Cook is câutious to obscfve thât "hÀving
rc0d allnost ev.ry book pûblishcd in Cânada on the war,
ûnd hundre.ls by irtefnàibnal scholârs, I am only too
awafe thât evcn ù two,volune history lan present jùst n
ffàction of dr€ nxtionl, experiencc in rhe Cjrert \X/âf.,3To
ofler â compelling âc.ount of ihis ùrique experieDcc,his
rnalysis is brscd ôn over â dccâde of siudy of otnci and
n r i v r t - , r o ,r ' . n e r r { .l , l u d . ) t s " , t c r s .
àrtefacts, postcârds, photogfaphs, and âfrlvorks. ',Ân
undcrstllndnu olthe conplexiry ofbàitle," hc points out,
"can
be achicved oDly by consultnlg these Dlultiple
sources of informâtion not to ùrcnriorl wâlking the
brltlelields to explore the very groûnd upon which rh.
soldiersfought. ''
h history, undcrstanding wôrld Waf I and th.
contribution of CâDadian soldiers rcquires more lhin
recâllhg stagnant facts about rvaf and bâttles. E! thrnr
. " v , . . I a c r s, l o r Ùw o u l dh , r \ , n o l , i , t " . r â t ç r g n i hJ, n ,, , r
ilrey were not connecied together by the hisrorian in :
nârrrtive that seelc to represetlt thc past br erprarnrnr
w h a t h â p p e n e d ." H i s t o f i c a l i n r e l l i g i b i t i t \ : L ô \ e n r h a l
r " m r d . u . r e q u re i t d n o to n \ p \ I i r e n | \ ô ( r u , I I n ,
 1'ûeneral
TÀBLE between
distincti0ns literacy
andhistorical
cr0ss-curricular

whatsrotlle.]lfi.rcnttypes.ttcxrsi\\rhtjstrhinori.ùln3ii3iive?Hoù'istrtonstluctedl
Y/hri e t h c l e À t u r e s . ! i h r t e x t ?( ' n a i n i . l e âL, r . $ , o P i n i o n s V/hrtistherrCumcftolrh'âLrL|oI?hit'onvimi'g?Horrisit
\ u f f n t c ! L r )I ' r L t r r à l È \ L f l r . " d r " ê l l o n r \ t r .es7

\Ihrt proccss,ererto' bie.l isbeinserpt.inedt WhiL is the scqùcn.e ofevcnis? Whnt ir. ihc .truses/'onsequen'c:r
! l' .1'r {' p od L q"d

vhrl g.od sutst cin yoù hùle nonr ihis text/Ptrssrg.? \Vhât d.es thc.vidÈr.e tellyou ùbout th. dcrc? \\r hcn sns rt
prcdùùed? $rh3l rre the subtcxls ofthc $urce!? F'{ Lsthe ev'dcntc

H.s is trP fr{ dillerent hom rhe p'eRft]\Yhrrr'rs it lilk llr bc ihcrc?
ù J h î tn r r o u t i . w i b o u t r h ei o D i t ?
V h ù t d o , v o uL l , n ) l . t t h . i e x l ?\ ! \ ? w h â t s l o r t s l n ù L d , v o ( b e l i e r c i n ? ( ) .w h t r tg r n û t r l s ?\ ! i t f { h r t

'llolly$'ood Cfe.riivc
àt pùfticulàr timcs, blLt i trrherenL story Ln rvhicli natty measurcdand Dot f.llrciflrllile
e v c n t s . u e s k i p p e d ,o l h c r s c f e c o r l . s c e d , ù D . l t e n i p o f i l inlcfpfctationin history trust b€ rcconp.rtied by legiti_
s<tu.ncc is oltcn sùbordinxted lo crplânrtion .nd mrte usc ol the .videDcc ltxtbooks bclic historical
i n t c f p f e l r t i o n . ' : "l h e h i s t o t i . r t i h ù s n e e d sI s t 0 1. l i s c i loorccs by rvoiding Lhc hcdgirg thùt hisrofiins nr.kc
pliDary strnd:irds ;1nd nrols lo .filicrlly issess th. t f . r n s p a f c l l il n t h c i r w r i t i n e
s i g n i l i c r n c €o l t h c s e l e c t . d c v e n t s r n . l t h € p i f t i c u l . r f 1 ) c v c l o p i r gh i s l o f i c n l l i t c r â c y r l c c c s s i l ù t e3s p . r r t i c -
p c L s p e c l i ! cr n d b d i c l l ( t h ù t h e b f i n g s t o l h c s t u c t y L h . 1 ulir modc of (llgrging wiih histoLl bolh in tcfms ol
i s ,h i s o $ t p o s i t i o r r r l i l Y . e!iclfl)ce .rrr.l niÛ ûii!c. V/htn slNlcnts .uc ch.rllcnge.llo
I l u t u D l i k e o i h c f t l P c s o l s t o r i e s ,i h c û n . t j v c o l r h i n l i l i k c h i s t u i t n s l h c y n n l s l t i ( l i l c a s c f i c so l e s s c n t i r l
hisi(r'y is dcpqxLort upon onPificrl cviddrcc dcriv.d q ù e s t i o n st h i r l . I n n o l b e . t s w c r f t l w i L h c l a s s ù D l nt c r t s
l r ) n r n m r ( c s i h r t D L r s tb e r n t r l l Z c d( r f r l L r l l y w i i h x d n l ) r n d c r o s s . u l r ' i c u l . i l i t c r c Ï s l i i l l s .D c l i n i n g c o n i f r r u ù l -
s o D s cd i h i s t ( r i i : r l lp f f $ p c . i i v c r , l ( l c n t P r l h y .i \ s W i n d m r g i z o d h i s i ù i ( a l ! c . r d i n g ,\ \ ' f i t i n g , l n d t h i n l ( i n g i s r r r o f c
o b s c f l c s , l c x t s r f c n o t l i l c l c s ss t r i n g s o f l r d s . . W o f d s ( o p l i c . r i i l dl h r n s i t r r P i yo u t l i n i n gt r s c t o l h c u f i s { r c sr s n )
h x l o t ( x l u r c r l r d s h ù p c ,x n d i i i s t h c j r i l n r o s i t i ( 1 i 1 . nruch dqrcDds orr thc qucsti(nrs, tho tci(ts, rncl (he
q u r r l i t yl h ù t l . l s ù ' . d t r s s c u l p l i n u g e s o i r h c r u l h o r s w l r ( ' (nnext. SLill, it is Possiblf tô oullil!c annc rn lho
"
uscthen\."' ln oihcf w,)ûs, histoficrltrxls do tot sPtxli q u u d i d r s t h r i h i s l o i i x n sb r i n g t o t h c l r s k :
on lh.ir owi).'lh.l, hrle thcir owt sulÎcxls xs hutrrtr l . U s c o l i D q ù i r y : H o w d o w c l t o $ r i b o u t U r ) r ' l ' \l v r f I ?
ù r t c l à c i sw i t h h i c n i i n l c r t n t l , r \ o t i v c r n d p u r P Ô s cn 1 c , v 2. Need of signilicrncc. Why is it imPort.rrl to study
inusi be sel(.ctcd,irL€rfogi1c.1,contcxturlizcd, (,ùPùfc.i, V / o r l dW L r rI ? l h c C d ] r , r d ittrr. o n t l i b u t n n t o i l l
ù n d s o n r c t i n e sd i s n i s s e . l d o P o l . l i u go n t h c c d n t i ' \ t o r t h c rl. Role of scu/identity: l low does nly i.lcntiLy shaPcille
ifgùùrerrl pfcsentedb-vùe hislofian $ry I eùgngcwiih thc Pasi?
q. Sense of enrpâthy: Whri w.rs ii lile to bc sokliers
Th'ough c.rfciirl enprlhcti. reâdirtg ot !rr,ous
Cùnùdiin, Bfitish .nd Gofmàn hisl.fi.rl sourccs (looLr
is rble to iùaginc to fe_enr.t rvh.l il ('ùs lilie b!.k 5. Usc of eviderce, \\rhit evidetcc do we hrvc lLl.\l
" s h o c LL t roops o{ lhc Lnpire/ lhw
t h c r â n d û , r L c ù c o r v l l r c i n g e v i d e i ) c cb x s e . l r r g u ù r c t l l C a n r d i à r l sw È r e
"re-enù.trble" !f. lhe sotrfces use.l? V hât
o n t h e u n i q u . C r D â d i . r ns v s i e D o l ù ' a g i n g w ù r ' l n t L l e
s e c o n dv o l û m e a l o n e ,h e d e d i . a t e s1 ) ol c s s t L 1 ù n5 9 p ù g e s persp,rctive(s)do thcy (re)Pfescnt?
t o f o o t n o t e sâ n d r c f c r e D c e s,;r k e y t e x L u r co f h i s t o r i . i l 6. l!ùportànce of c.rusatn'r: What sere lhc (âuses à|d
w f i l l n g t h i t h a s s o m e h o w m , v s i e r i o u s l yd i s â p p e a r c d cÊects of thc selectedcvents/
"sho.li 7. Conne.tioD lo thc Presen. lD whùt $'rys does thc
f f o ù s . h ô , r l t c x t b o o k s .( l o t r c e P l sâ r d i d e â s l i k c
" t r e n c hs y s t . m , " ^ \ o N l c n ' sL â r r d , "â n c l ' r n l i c o n presenl shafc the $ay we make scnseot' lhe \sâr? How
troops,
scriptidi crkis" cnefge ffom à Pârticulaf Yrorld War i is the prcscnt ir conthuily ttilh the P.rs!?
c o n t e x t t h à t C o o k s k i L f ù l l vb r i D g s t o l i t . T h i s d y n a m i c S. Role ofjudgnentr Why should t believe in til€ .rfgu
interplal bctù,een the tcxts ând language ot thc pâst àird mcnt pfesentc.i by Cook? Witir whât rescrvàtion?
C o o k ' o w n i n t c r p r e t â l i v el c n s p r o d u c c st n î c c o u n t t h i l \ Y h à t i s t L l em o r a l o f h i s s l o f Y ?
l v o i d s i r - pp r e s e n t i s l n t c r p r e h t i o n s .C o o k l a c c o n n ti s 9. Lânguâge of history: How do we use aDd deàl with
nore yivid lnd conpelling thàD.rny tc{tbook, yct the languàg. ofthÊ pàst?How do we rePresentit?
 0I HrsToRtcÀL
t|ÎÊnacy,LEAR GT0rHtrl(LtXElISToRtÀr{S

10.Use ofhistoricâl nârrâtiv€r Whâr is rhe organization
and stfucture of a convincing story? How arc historicâl
nârratives difiercnt fron/sim ilû r to historicâ1 n oveis?
Helping our studcnrs learn ro answer rhese (ànd
'rany other such) questions provides one, perhaps thc
n1ostelïc€tive way of introducing them ro the power ànd
iimits olhistoricâl thinking Geetàble 1).} Schoolsare in â
privilegcd positioD to châll€Dgc populaa intuftive ideas
aboùt the pàst that students bring to clâsswirh "Ân oricn
tation to the past inforned iry disciplhâry c.rnons of
eviden(e and rules of a.gùment."! Of course, very few
students $'il1 ever gfow into histofians like Coo(, or even
contemplatc the profession,but nltroducing them to the
"rùles
of the gnme" hclps novices dev€lop morc soptristi-
catcd ideis ând stories thaD pfovided by popul.rr cuttufe
and other sites of nlcmory. [âccd with ûnfànriliÀr
docunents or conflicting âccounts on !n issue, smocnls
who havc developedhistoricâl literacy.re bettcr cqLripped
to re,1dnnd qLtcstion them ànd judge their nerit than
thosc who reiyon the â{0rdrnces olevcrydaylife.
Whcn we conlpare how stud€nts ând historiÂns
ongagelvith thc prst, w€ âfti in I b€tter position tu dcfine
tlrogtessioy itr historicâl lerflling. School history is srill
d o m i n a t c d b y â s t o r y , r c l l i n g a p p r o û c ht o r h e n a t i o n À l
past with approved tcxtbooks that sâDciion whât ought
t o b c l e , i r n c d- o r d i s D r i s s c dI.h e y t e n d t o b e w r i t t c n i n
rn ruthoriiativc voice without refcrcnce to thc vary
i s p e c t o i h i s t o r i c a lâ r g u m e n t s re v i d c n c e .l f w c w ! n r o u r
s l u d c D t st o r e a d h i s t o f y l r o n l a t € x r b o o ko r a b l o g d i f c f -
c r t l y a n d i f w c w l n t t h € n r t o b e c o n l cc r i t i c r l t h i r r k c r s
w h o c a n u l t i m a t e l yc r a l t t h e i r o w n w a r r a n t c d s t o r i e so f
lhc pasi, we nced to providerhen with rh€ mcans !o
dcvclop historicll lit€f àcy.
t{0Tts
i o$r spoci!ldrankstù StlD Hàl|nâ n-Chongâûd Lheùrenrb.s
oi the Litcrdcy and lli(ory Working croup of thc OnLâfiô
Ministry of Educâtionfor .omrncntsor errticr d.âfrs ôf rhis
I OntàrioTelcheB'NIàDuâls, (Iborro: Thc Côpp,CIârk
H.isro/:y
Conrpdny,1915),38.
I OntàfioMinistry of Edr.^ti't\i, LitEt1.lJ.r
t.edftiùg l1epoûol
the Etpeft Pdml on Litetu.t iti Grades..t ta 6 h O,taio
('roronto:QueensPrinrè.fof O ntârio,2004),L
'Peûy Klein, "Contcrt litÊecy," \,Vhat
Wotksl l?esearchinto
Pm.ti.e, t3 I2AAB),14. lterrievcdMay 4, 2010tionr httpJ/
wN,v.edu.govoù..ù/eng/lirerd.)numerâ.y/inspire/rescrr.h/
' As ân examplcof this literacytrend, seethc inrfoduction
of
Ontrfio Minist.I of Educàtion,Ttiuk Liretuc!: CrôN C\ftn-
utdt Appna.res Grader 7t, (Toronto:eùeent printer fo.
O n t a f i o , 2 0 0 31) ',5 .
! Sam V\vineburg, Historical thiikittg 44à Other LIn"|turdl
Acts: C:harti.tgthe Iùtut. o.fTea(hirgth? past. (lhllâdelphia:
TetnplêUùivesity Prèss,2001),79.
llowàrd (jamcr & Veftntica Boii lvlânsilla,"Tcùching fol
Uftlcrstanding in th€ DGcidincs .\nd Belond,' in Tre
DerclapnerLdnd Educatioro/tr. rutl, .d. H. caùrer (N.lv
York:Ro(tledge,2006),147.().igiDalworkpùblishedin 1994
NOrtârio iUinistr)'oi Edu.ariotl.(2004).Liten.!
Jor L.dtnin!:
RepatxoI th( Erpe Pdrcl o, Liteturr itr Cimtles4 h 6 in
Orkrb, 5. sec llso EarbaraMoss,"Nlatringâ c$e rhd a pircc
lôr elfectivccontehta.calitc cy instmctionin th€ eternentÀrI
Ètndes,'me R.t.lihgT.a.h.[ 59 (2005),46-55.
' Ont.rioMinistryof Ed(carior,Likta.t
ft, t,earrirg R.tt,t oj
thc EîpetL1\lelak Litera.:!ih (rad61b6 ht(r1ùiia,S.
lbny Taylor, 'l]|o|n l-listory Horfof Sro.ies to HisbLic.l
LitctÀcy, ilonash Mdg.i,? (2004),2. Itetficvcdon May 5,
2010lk,n httpr/^!vw.mo11,rsh.cd!.ruhubs/monmâg/i$sucu-
2004rrews/h istoryhtn I
' scc Howdkl c.rtltrcr, ?ra urtrlLaoledMitit: Hor)
ChiL|rcr
nntk akl tlaw schaolsSrto,l.l fta.lr (Ncw y('t,Itasic Bool$,
2001),17?-I75.
'rPeterscix,rs,"Sch$'cigcnlDic Kitrdcrt
Or, Docs i)osrmodcnl
llistory Hù,-" . lrl.rccin tlre ::chools:t,i, Krawir!, tcd.hing,
and Le(trikg tlinory: NdtiaraLard l k'rnalioral p.t spa.lives,
cd. P.Sterrn!, !. Scixùs& S Wirebùfg (NÔv yofll New york
unjvÙsirr Pre$, 2000),2s.
'Pclcf Lee, "Puttiûg hinciples t\(o pu(ti.e:
UnderstaDding
lliskkity,"i\1 IIor) SLtdtkA LeuM: Hisrotr, Matrcùart.s, ard
sciclt. ir the Classôofl, ed. S. Donovdn & J. Brrnsibfd
(WùslriDgLor D(ir N.t iondl,{cden iesPrcss,2005),32
rlGafner & Uoix-Mansillù,1elchirg ibf Und€rstanding
iû rhe
Dis.iphrs - And tseyond,151. On the proto disciplinary
tnowledgc develôped by studenrs h hisrory, scc Slm
winebuf8 dnd jack Schncidef,"Wùs Bi@mls Taxonomy
Pointed in the Wrorg Dircction?" Phi Deltn K.tppa, 91
(l)eccmbef2009/Jinuàry2010),56 6t.
rOù pafallel.hdllengesfâcin8studeDrsin th. Us curricùlum,
seeWiDcburg,tlatofi.al Litking ar.l Other LlnraturdtA.6:
Chdtti'rgtltcFULLI ol'rcd.hirLgLhepast,79 Bo.
"'Iim Cook,lrl,.t lrorpj C4nadiaÆLightiùg
the Glr1t \yhr,
1917t9t8 (2 val) (Totô\1tat
Pengui11,
20072008).
 tÉVESIUE
sTÉPHÀITE

"Tim Cook, Sro.k "/oolsr CLfla.lians Fightikg the Grcat wat

19171918(val. 2) (Iorotrto: Penguin,2008),8.
Blbid.,7,8

,ùDavid Lorenthal, me Pan is d Foreig Crùrtry {Ncw York:

CambridgeUnivcreityP.e6s,1985),223.
)Sam Wineburg,"On the Reâdingof Historicâl leaG: Noteson
the Breach Between S.hool ^n<l AcÀ,leny:' Atnefi.a, Educd'
Joutrol,28 \1997),507.
tional Resedrch
:rÏre BenchmRrksof Historical Thinking (çww.historiccd/
betlchmârks) isstudyingsomeofthesekeyconccPts (ândsetol
r e h r c dq u e s t i o n Jbr) s . l l i ' l h e w a ) so f m à k r n p
8 r o gresion
in
histoficâlthinking.
i3StéphdneLévesque,1rlrliig Hittotical\: Eàutdting Stutleflts
lot the 21" .entury (Torontoi University ol Toronh Press,
2008).
lrsan wineburg, "Unnatural ànd Êssential,The Nâturc of
Htstori€aIITinking,"?éat itlg Hirtary,129(2007),6