Theory

Psychoanalytic Therapy

Psychodynamic Approaches
 Psychodynamic Approaches

Adlerian Therapy

Existential Therapy

Experiential and Relationship - Oriented

Therapies
 Person - centered Therapy
Experiential and Relationship - Oriented
Therapies

Gestalt Therapy
 Behavior Therapy

Cognitive behavior Therapy

Cognitive Behavioral Approaches

Cognitive Behavioral Approaches

Rational emotive behavior

Therapy
 Reality Therapy

Feminist Therapy

Systems and Postmodern Approaches

 Postmodern Approaches

Systems and Postmodern Approaches

Family systems Therapy

 Theory review write-up and the

Nature of the person

including innate capacities
and/or capabilities, if any,
Founder(s) of the theory
and motivational
constructs according to
the theory.

A theory of personality
development, a philosophy
of human nature, and a
method of psychotherapy
that focuses on unconscious
Sigmund Freud factors that motivate
behavior. Attention is given
to the events of the first 6
years of life as determinants
of the later development of
personality.
 This is a growth model that
stresses assuming
responsibility, creating one's
own destiny, and finding
Alfred Adler, Rudolf Dreikurs
meaning and goals to create
a purposeful life. Key
concepts are used in most
other current therapies.

Reacting against the

tendency to view therapy as
a system of well-defined
techniques, this model
stresses building therapy on
the basic conditions of
Viktor Frankl, Rollo May,
human existence, such as
and Irvin Yalom
choice, the freedom and
responsibility to shape one's
life, and self - determination.
It focuses on the quality of
the person - to - person
therapeutic relationship.
 This approach was
developed during the 1940s
as a nondirective reaction
against psychoanalysis.
Based on a subjective view
Carl Rogers, Natalie Rogers
of human experiencing, it
places faith in and gives
responsibility to the client in
dealing with problems and
concerns.

An experiential therapy
stressing awareness and
integration; it grews as a
Fritz and Laura Perls.
reaction against analytic
Mirriam and Erving Polster
therapy. It integrates the
functioning of body and
mind.
 This approach applies the
principles of learning to the
resolution of specific
behavioral problems.
B.F. Skinner, Arnold Lazarus
Results are subject to
and Albert Bandura
continual experimentation.
The methods of this
approach are always in the
process of refinement.

A.T Beck founded cognitive

therapy, which gives a
primary role to thinking as it
influences behavior; Judith
A.T. Beck, Judith Beck and
Beck continues to develop
Donald Meichenbaum
CBT. Donald Meichenbaum
is a prominent contributor to
the development of the
cognitive behavior therapy.
 A highly didactic, cognitive,
action - oriented model of
therapy that stresses the
Albert Ellis
role of thinking and belief
systems as the root of
personal problems.
 A short - term approach
which is based on choice
theory and focuses on the
client assuming
William Glasser, Robert
responsibility in the present.
Wubbolding
Through the therapeutic
process, the client is able to
learn more effective ways of
meeting her or his needs.

A central concept is the

concern for the
psychological oppression of
women. Focusing on the
constraints imposed by the
Jean Baker Miller, Carolyn
sociopolitical status to which
Zerbe Enns, Oliva Espin
women have been
and Laura Brown
relegated, this approach
explores women's identity
development, self - concept,
goals and aspirations, and
emotional well - being.
 Steve de Shazer and Insoo
Kim Berg are the co-
founders of solution -
focused brief therapy.
Michael White and David
Epston are the major
features assoicated with
narrative therapy. Social
Steve de Shazer and Insoo
constructionism, solution-
Kim Berg, Michael White
focused brief therapy, and
and David Epston
narrative therapy all assume
that there is no single truth;
rather, it is believed that
reality is socially constructed
through human interaction.
These approaches maintain
that the client is an expert in
his or her own life.

This systematic approach is

Alfred Adler, Murray Bowen,
based on the assumption
Virginia Satir, Carl Whitaker,
that the key to changing the
Salvador Minuchin, Jay
individual is understanding
Haley and Cloé Madanes
and working with the family.
 Theory review write-up and the position paper on a selected theory.

Normal personality development is

based on successful resolution and
Human beings are basically determined by integration of psychosexual stages
psychic energy and by early experiences. of development. Faulty personality
Unconscious motives and conflicts are development is the result of
central in present behavior. Early inadequate resolution of some
development is of critical importance specific stage. Anxiety is a result of
because later personality problems have repression of basic conflicts.
their roots in repressed childhood conflicts. Unconscious processes are
centrally related to current
behavior.

Humans are motivated by social interest,
by striving toward goals, by inferiority and
superiority, and by dealing with the tasks
of life. Emphasis is on the individual's
positive capacities to live in society
cooperatively. People have the capacity to
interpret, influence, and create events.
Each person at an early age creates a
unique style of life, which tends to remain
relatively constant throughout life.
The central focus is on the nature of the
human condition, which includes a
capacity for self-awareness, freedom of
choice to decide one's fate, responsibility,
anxiety, the search for meaning, being
alone and being in relation with othersm
striving for authenticity, and facing living
and dying.
Key concepts include the unity of
personality, the need to view
people from their subjective
perspective, and the importance of
life goals that give direction to
behavior. People are motivated by
social interest and by finding goals
to give life meaning. Other key
concepts are striving for
significance and superiority,
developing a unique lifestyle, and
understanding the family
constellation. Therapy is a matter
of providing encouragement and
assisting clients in changing their
cognitive perspective and behavior.
Essentially and experiential
approach to counseling rather than
a firm theoretical model, it stresses
core human conditions. Interest is
on the present and on what one is
becoming. The approach has a
future orientation and stresses self-
awareness before action.
 The client has the potential to
become aware of problems and the
means to resolve them. Faith is
Positive view of people; we have an
placed in the client's capacity for
inclination toward becoming fully
self-direction. Mental health is a
functioning. In the context of the
congruence of ideal self and real
therapeutic relationship, the client
self. Maladjustment is the result of
experiences feelings that were previously
a discrepancy between what one
denied to awareness. The client moves
wants to be and what one is. In
toward increased awareness, spontaneity,
therapy attention is given to the
trust in self, and inner-directedness.
present moment and on
experiencing and expressing
feelings.

The person strives for wholeness and

integration of thinking, feeling and
behaving. Some key concepts include
Emphasis is on the "what" and
contact with self and others, contact
"how" of experiencing in the here
boundaries, and awareness. The view is
and now to help clients accept all
nondeterministic in that the person is
aspects of themselves. Key
viewed as having the capacity to
concepts include holism, figure-
recognize how earlier influences are
formation process, awareness,
related to present difficulties. As an
unfinished business and
experiential approach, it is grounded in the
avoidance, contact and energy.
here and now and emphasizes
awareness, personal choice, and
responsibility.
 Focus is on the overt behavior,
precision in specifying goals of
treatment, development of specific
Behavior is the product of learning. We are
treatment plans, and objective
both the product and the producer of the
evaluation of therapy outcomes.
environment. Traditional behavior therapy
Present behavior is given attention.
is based on classical and operant
Therapy is based on the principles
principles. Contemporary behavior therapy
of learning theory. Normal behavior
has branched out in many directions.
is learned through reinforcement
and imitation. Abnormal behavior is
the result of faulty learning.

Individuals tend to incorporate faulty

thinking, which leads to emotional and
Although psychological problems
behavioral disturbances. Cognitions are
may be rooted in childhood, they
the major determinants of how we feel and
are reinforced by present ways of
act. Therapy is primarily oriented toward
thinking. A person's belief system
cognition and behavior, and it stresses the
is the primary cause of disorders.
role of thinking, deciding, questioning,
Internal dialogue plays a central
doing and redeciding. This is a
role in one's behavior. Clients
psychoeducational model, which
focus on examining faulty
emphasizes therapy as a learning
assumptions and misconceptions
process, including acquiring and practicing
and on replacing these with
new skills, learning new ways of thinking,
effective beliefs.
and acquiring more effective ways of
coping with problems.

Based on choice theory, this approach
assumes that we need quality
relationships to be happy. Psychological
problems are the result of our resisting the
control by others or of our attempt to
control others. Choice theory is an
explanation of human nature and how to
best achieve satisfying interpersonal
relationships.
The basic focus is on what clients
are doing and how to get them to
evaluate whether their present
actions are working for them.
People are mainly motivated to
satisfy their needs, especially the
need for significant relationships.
The approach rejects the medical
model, the notion of transference,
the unconsciors, and dwelling on
one's past.

Feminists criticize many traditional Core principles of feminist therapy

theories to the degree that they are based are that the personal is political,
on gender-biased concepts, such as being therapists have a commitment to
androcentric, gendercentric, ethnocentric, social change, women's voices and
heterosexist and intrapsychic. The ways of knowing are valued and
constructs of feminist therapy include women's experiences are honored,
being gender fair, flexible, interactionist, the counseling relationship is
and life-span-oriented. Gender and power egalitarian, therapy focuses on the
are at the heart of feminist therapy. This is strengths and a reformulated
a systems approach that recognizes the definition of psychological distress,
cultural, social , and political factors that and all types of oppression are
contribute to an individual's problems. recognized.
 Based on the premise that there are
multiple realities and multiple truths,
postmodern therapies reject the idea that
reality is external and can be grasped.
People create meaning in their lives
through conversations with others. The
postmodern approached avoid
pathologizing clients, take a dim view of
diagnosis, avoid searching for underlying
causes of problems, and place a high
value on discovering clients' strengths and
resources. Rather than talking about
problems, the focus of therapy is on
creating solutions in the present and the
future.
The family is viewed from an interactive
and systemic perspective. Clients are
connected to a living system; a change in
one part of the system will result in a
change in other parts. The family provides
the context for understanding how
individuals function in relationship to
others and how they behave. Treatment
deals with the family unit. An individual's
dysfunctional behavior grows out of the
interactional unit of the family and out of
larger systems as well.
Therapy tends to be brief and
addresses the present and the
future. The person is not he
problem; the problem is the
problem.The emphasis is on the
externalizing the problem and
looking for exceptions to the
problem. Therapy consists of a
collaborative dialogue in which the
therapist and the client co-create
solutions. By identifying instances
when the problem did not exist,
clients can create new meanings
for themselves and fashion a new
life story.
Focus is on communication
patterns within a family, both verbal
and nonverbal. Problems in
relationships are likely to be
passed from generation to
generation. Key concepts vary
depending on specific
concentration but include
differentiation, triangles, power
coalitions, family-of-origin
dynamics, functional versus
dysfunctional interaction patterns,
and dealing with here-and-now
interaction. The present is more
important than exploring past
experiences.
selected theory.

Nature of maladjustment (how do Goals of counseling

people develop mental illness) therapy according to the
according to the theory. theory.

To make the unconscious

conscious. To reconstruct the
basic personality. To assist
clients in reliving earlier
experiences and working
through repressed conflicts.
To achieve intellectual and
emotional awareness.
 To challenge clients' basic
premises and life goals. To
offer encouragement so
individuals can develop
socially useful goals and
increase social interest. To
develop the client's sense of
belonging.

To help people see that they

are free and to become
aware of their possibilities.To
challenge them to recognize
that they are responsible for
events that they formerly
thought were happening to
them. To identify factors that
block freedom.
 To provide a safe climate
conducive to clients' self-
exploration, so that they can
recognize blocks to growth
and can experience aspects
of self that were formerly
denied or distorted. To
enable them to move
towards openness, greater
trust in self, willingness to be
a process, and increased
spontaneity and aliveness.
To find meaning in life and to
experience life fully. To
become more self-directed.

To assist clients in gaining

awreness of moment-to-
moment experiencing and to
expand the capacity to make
choices. To foster integration
of the self.
 To eliminate maladpative
behaviors and learn more
effective behaviors. To
identify factors that influence
behavior and find out what
can be done about
problematic behavior. To
encourage clients to take an
active and collaborative role
in clearly setting treatment
goals and evaluating how
well these goals are being
met.

To teach clients to confront

faulty beliefs with
contradictory evidence that
they gather and evaluate. To
help clients seek out their
faulty beliefs and minimize
them. To become aware of
automatic thoughts and to
change them.
To help people become more
effective in meeting all of
their psychological needs. To
enable to get reconnected
with the people they have
chosen to put into their
quality worlds and teach
clients choice theory.

To bring about
transformation both in the
individual client and in
society. To assist clients in
recognizing, claiming, and
using their personal power to
free themselves from the
limitations of gender-role
socialization. To confront all
forms of institutional policies
that discriminate or oppress
on any basis.
 To change the way clients
view problems and what they
can do about these
concerns, To collaboratively
establish specific, clear,
concrete, realistic, and
observable goals leading to
increased positive change.
To help clients create a self -
identity grounded on
competence and
resourcefulness so they can
resolve present and future
concerns. To assist clients in
viewing their lives in positive
ways, rather than being
problem saturated.

To help family members gain

awareness of patterns of
relationships that are not
working well and to create
new ways of interacting.
 Role and activity of the counselor, including:

a.major techniques used in

the therapy
Therapeutic Relationship
b.diagnosis and appraisal devices

c.evaluation of client progress in

therapy
Techniques of Therapy

The classical analyst remains

anonymous, and clients develop
projections toward him or her.
Focus is on reducing the
resistances that develop in
working with transferences and
on establishing more rational
The key techniques are interpretation, dream
control. Clients undergo long-
analysis, free association, analysis of resistance,
term analysis, engage in free
analysis of transference, and countertransference.
association to uncover conflicts,
Techniques are designed to help clients gain
and gain insight by talking. The
access to their unconscious conflicts, which leads
analyst makes interpretations to
to insight and eventual assimilation of new material
teach clients the meaning of
by the ego.
current behavior as it relates to
the past. In contemporary
relational psychoanalytic
therapy, the relationship is
central and emphasis is given to
here-and-now dimensions of the
relationship.
 The emphasis is on joint
responsibility, on mutually
determining goals, on mutual
trust and respect, and on
equality. Focus is on identifying, (family constellation, early recollections, personal
exploring, and disclosing
mistaken goals and faulty
assumptions within the person's
lifestyle.
The therapist's main tasks are to
accurately grasp clients' being in
the whole world and to establish
a personal and authentic
encounter with them. The
immediacy of the client-therapist
relationship and the authenticity
of the here-and-now encounter
are stressed. Both client and
therapist can be changed by the
encounter.
Adlerians pay more attention to the subjective
experiences of clients that to using techniques.
Some techniques include gatehring life-history data
priorities), sharing interpretations with clients,
offering encouragement, and assisting clients in
searching for new possibilities.
Few techniques flow from this approach because it
stresses understanding first and technique second.
The therapist can borrow techniques from other
approaches and incorporate them in an existential
framework. Diagnosis, testing, and external
measurements are not deemed important. Issues
addressed are freeedom and responsibility,
isolation and relationships, meaning and
meaninglessness, living and dying.
 The relationship is of primary
importance. The qualities of the
This approah uses few techniques but stresses that
therapist, including genuineness,
attitudes of the therapist and a "way of being."
warmth, accurate empathy,
Therapists strive for active listening, reflection of
respect, and
feelings, clarification, "being there" for the client,
nonjudgementaleness - and
and focusing on the moment-to-moment
communication of these attitudes
experiencing of the client. This model does not
to clients - are stressed. Clients
include diagnostic testing, interpretation, taking a
use this genuine relationship
case history, or questioning or probing for
with the therapist to help them
information.
transfer what they learn to other
relationships.

Central importance is given to

the I/Thou relationship and the
quality of the therapist's
presence. The therapist's
A wide range of experiments are designed to
attitude and behavior count more
intesify experiencing and to integrate conflicting
than the techniques used. The
feelings. Experiments are co-created by therapist
therapist does not interpret for
and client through and I/Thou dialogue. Therapists
clients but assists them in
hae latitude to creatively invent their own
developing the means to make
experiments. Formal diagnosis and testing are not
their own interpretations. Clients
a required part of therapy.
identify and work on unfinished
business from the past that
interferes with current
functioning.
The therapist is more active and
directive and functions as a
teacher or mentor in helping
clients learn more effective
behavior. Clients must be active
in the process and experiment
with new behaviors. Although a
quality client-therapist
relationship is not viewed as
sufficient to bring about change,
it is considered essential for
implementing behavioral
procedures.
The main techniques are reinforcement, shaping,
modeling, systematic desensitization, relaxation
methods, flooding, eye movement and
desensitization reprocessing, cognitive
restructuring, assertion and social skills training,
self-management programs, mindfulness and
acceptance methods, behavioral rehearsal,
coaching, and various multimodal therapy
techniques. Diagnosis or assessment is done at the
outset to determine a treatment plan. Questions
concentrate on "what", "how", and "when" (but not
"why"). Contracts and homework assignments are
also typically used.

In REBT the therapist functions

as a teacher and the client as a
student. The therapist is highly Therapists use a variety of cognitive, emotive, and
directive and teaches clients an behavioral techniques; diverse methods are tailored
A,B,C model of changing their to suit individual clients. This is an active, directive,
cognitions. In CT the focus is on time-limted, present-centered, psychoeducational,
a collaborative relationship. structured therapy. Some techniques include
Using a Socratic dialogue, the engaging in Socratic dialogue, collaborative
therapist assists clients in empiricism, debating irrational beliefs, carrying out
identifying dysfunctional beliefs homework assignments, gathering data on
and discovering alternative rules assumptions one has made, keeping a record of
for living. The therapist promotes activities, forming alternative interpretations,
corrective experiences that lead learning new coping skills, changing one's
to learning new skills. Clients language and thinking patterns, role playing,
gain insight into their problems imagery, confronting faulty beliefs, self-instructional
and then must actively practice training, and stress inoculation training.
changing self-defeating thinking
and acting.
 A fundamental task is for the
therapist to create a good
relationship with the client.
Therapists are then able to
engage clients in an evaluation
This is an active, directive, and didactic therapy.
of all their relationships with
Skillful questioning is a central technique used for
respect to what they want and
the duration of the therapy process. Various
how effective they are in getting
techniques may be used to get clients to evaluate
this. Therapists find out what
what they are presently doing to see if they are
clients want, ask what they are
willing to change. If clients decide that their present
choosing to do, invite them to
behavior is not effective, they develop a specific
evaluate present behavior, help
plan for change and make a commitment to follow
them make plans for change,
through.
and get them to make a
commitment. The therapist is a
client's advocate, as long as the
client is willing to attempt to
behave responsibly.

Although techniques from traditional approaches

The therapeutic relationship is
are used, feminist practicioners tend to employ
based on empowerment and
consciousness - raising techniques aimed at
egalitarianism. Therapists
helping clients recognize the impact of gender-role
actively break down the
socialization on their lives. Other techniques
hierarchy of power and reduce
frequently used include gender-role analysis and
artificial barriers by engaging in
intervention, power analysis and intervention,
appropriate self-disclosure and
demystifying therapy, bibliotherapy, journal writing,
teaching clients about the
therapist self-disclosure, assertiveness training,
therapy process. Therapists
reframing and relabeling, cognitive restructuring,
strive to create a collaborative
identifying and challenging untested beliefs, role
relationship in which clients can
playing, psychodyramatic methods, group work,
become their own expert.
and social action.
 Therapy is collaborative
partnership. Clients are viewed
as the experts on their own life.
Therapists use questioning In solution-focused therapy the main technique
dialogue to help clients free involves change-talk, with emphasis on times in a
themselves from their problem- client's life when the problem was not a problem.
saturated stories and create new Other techniques include creative use of
life-affirming stories. Solution- questioning, the miracle question, and scaling
focused therapists assume an questions, which assist clients in developing
active role in guiding the client alternative stories. In narrative therapy, specific
way from problem-talk and techniques include listening to a client's problem -
toward solution-talk. Clients are saturated story without getting stuck, externalizing
encouraged to explore their and naming the problem, externalizing
strengths and to create solutions conversations, and discovering clues to
that will lead to a richer future. competence. Narrative therapists often write letters
Narrative therapists assist clients to clients and assis them in finding an audience that
in externalizing problems and will support their changes and new stories.
guide them in examining self-
limiting stories and creating new
and more liberating stories.

The family therapist functions as

a teacher, coach, model, and
consultant. The family learns
ways to detect and solve
A variety of techniques may be used, depending on
problems that are keeping
the particular theoretical orientation of the therapist.
members stuck, and it learns
Techniques include genograms, teaching, asking
about patterns that have been
questions, joining the family, tracking sequences,
transmitted from generation to
issuing directives, use of countertransference,
generation. Some approaches
family mapping, reframing, restructuring,
focus on the role of therapist as
enactments, and setting boundaries. Techniques
expert; others concentrate on
may be experiential, cognitive, or behavioral in
intensifying what is going on in
nature. Most are designed to bring about change in
the here and now of the family
a short time.
session. All family therapists are
concerned with the process of
family interaction and teaching
patterns of communication.
 Contributions to Multicultural
Applications of the Approaches
Counseling

Candidates for analytic therapy include

professionals who want to become Its focus on family dynamics is
therapists, people who have had appropriate for working with many
intensive therapy and want to go cultural groups. The therapist's formality
further, and those who are in appeals to clients who expect
psychological pain. Analytic therapy is professional distance. Notion of ego
not recommended for self-centered and defense is helpful in undersranding
impulsive individuals or for people with inner dynamics and dealing with
psychotic disorders. Techniques can be environmental stresses.
applied to individual and group therapy.
 Because the approach is based on a
growth model, it is applicable to such
varied spheres of life as child guidance,
Its focus on social interest, helping
parent-child counseling, marital and
others, collectivism, pursuing meaning
family therapy, individual counseling
in life, importance of family, goal
with all age groups, correctional and
orientation, and belonging is congruent
rehabilitation counseling, group
with the values of many cultures. Focus
counseling, substance abuse programs,
on person-in-the-environment allows for
and brief counseling. It is ideally suited
cultural factors to be explored.
to preventive care and alleciating a
broad range of conditions that interfere
with growth.

This approach is especially suited to

Focus is on understanding client's
people facing a developmental crisis or
phenomenological world, including
a transistion in life and for those
cultural background. This approach
existential concerns (making choices,
leads to empowerment in an oppressive
dealing with freedom and responsibility,
society. Existential therapy can help
coping with guilt and anxiety, making
clients examine their options for change
sense of life, and finding values) or
within the context of their cultural
those seeking personal enhancement.
realities. The existential approach is
The approach can be applied tp both
particularly suited to counseling diverse
individual and group counseling, and to
clients because of the philosophical
couples and family therapy, crisis
foundation that emphasizes the human
intervention, and community mental
condition.
health work.
 Has wide applicability to individual and
group counseling. It is especially well Focus is on breaking cultural barriers
suited for the intital phase of crisis and facilitating open dialogue among
intervention work. Its principles have diverse cultural populations. Main
been applied to couples and family strengths are respect for clients' values,
therapy, community programs, active listening, welcoming of
administration and management, and differences, nonjudgmental attitude,
human relations training. It is a useful understanding, willingness to allow
approach for teaching, parent-child clients to determine what will be
relations, and for working with groups of explored in sessions, and prizing
people from diverse cultural cultural pluralism.
backgrounds.

Addresses a wide range of problems

Its focus on expressing oneself
and populations: crisis intervention,
nonverbally is congruent with those
treatment of a range of psychosomatic
cultures that look beyond words for
disorders, couples and family therapy,
messages. Provide many experiments
awareness training of mental health
in working with clients who have cultural
professionals, behavior problems in
injunctions against freely expressing
children, and teaching and learning. It is
feelings. Can help to overcome
well suited to both individual and group
language barrier with bilingual clients.
counseling. The methods are powerful
Focus on bodily expressions is a subtle
catalysts for opening up feelings and
way to help clients recognize their
getting clients into contact with their
conflicts.
present-entered experience.
 A pragmatic approach based on
Focus on behavior, rather than on
empirical validation of results. Enjoys
feelings, is compatible with many
wide applicability to individual, group,
cultures. Strengths include a
couples, and family counseling. Some
collaborative relationship between
problems to which the approach is well
counselor and client in working toward
suited are phobic disorders, depression,
mutually agreed-upon goals, continual
trauma, sexual disorders, children's
assessment to determine if the
behavioral disorders, stuttering, and
techniques are suited to clients' unique
prevention of cardiovascular disease.
situations, assisting clients in learning
Beyond clinical practice, its principles
practical skills, an educational focus,
are applied in fields such as pediatrics,
and stress on self-management
stress management, behavioral
strategies.
medicine, education, and geriatrics.

Focus is on a collaborative approach

Has been widely applied to treatment of
that offers clients opportunities to
depression, anxiety, relationship
express their areas of concern. The
problems, stress management, skill
psychoeducational dimensions are
training, substance abuse, assertion
often useful in exploring cultural
training, eating disorders, panic attacks,
conflicts and teaching new behavior.
performance anxiety, and social
The emphasis on thinking (as opposed
phobias. CBT is especially useful for
to identifying and expressing feelings) is
assisting people in modifying their
likely to be acceptable to many clients.
cognitions. Many self-help approaches
The focus on teaching and learning
utilize its principles. CBT can be applied
tends to avoid the stigma of mental
to a wide range of client populations
illness. Clients may value the active and
with a variety of specific problems.
directive stance of the therapist.
 Geared to teaching people ways of
using choice theory in everyday living to evaluation of behavior (including how
increase effective behaviors. It has
been applied to individual counseling
with a wide range of clients, group
counseling, working with youthful law
offenders, and couples and family
therapy. In some instances it is well
suited to brief therapy and crisis
intervention.
Principles and techniques can be
applies to a range of therapeutic
modalities such as individual therapy,
relationship counseling, family therapy,
group counseling, and community
intervention. The approach can be
applied to both women and men with
the goal of bringing about
empowerment.
Focus is on clients making their own
they respond to their culture). Through
personal assessment clients can
determine the degree to which their
needs and wants are being satisfied.
They can find a balance between
retaining their own ethnic identity and
integrating some of the values and
practices of the dominant society.
Focus is on both individual change and
social transformation. A key contribution
is pthat both the women's movement
and the multicultural movement have
called attention to the negative impact
of discrimination and oppression for
both women and men. Emphasizes the
influence of expected cultural roles and
explores client's satisfaction with
knowledge of these roles.
 Solution-focused therapy is well suited
for people with adjustment disorders
and for problems of anxiety and
depression. Narrative therapy is now
being used for a broad range of human
difficulties including eating disorders,
family distress, depression, and
relationship concerns. These
approaches can be applied to working
with children, adolescents, adults,
couples, families, and the community in
a wide variety of settings. Both solution-
focused and narrative approaces lend
themselves to group counseling and to
school counseling.
Focus is on the social and cultural
context of behavior. Stories that are
being authored in the therapy office
need to be anchored in the social world
in which the client lives. Therapists do
not make assumptions about people
and honor each client's unique story
and cultural background. Therapists
take an active role in challenging social
and cultural injustices that lead to
oppression of certain groups. Therapy
becomes a process of liberation from
oppressive cultural values and enables
clients to become active agents of their
destinies.

Focus is on the family or community

system. Many ethnic and cultural
groups place value on the role of the
Useful for dealing with marital distress, extended family. Many family therapies
problems of communicating among deal with extended family members and
family members, power struggles, crisis support systems. Networking is a part of
situations in the family, helping the process, which is congruent with the
individuals attain their potential, and values of many clients. There is a
enhancing the overall functioning of the greater chance for individual change if
family. other family members are supportive.
This approach offers ways of working
toward the health of the family unit and
the welfare of each member.
 Limitations in Multicultural Counseling Contirbutions of the Approaches

More than any other system, this

approach has generated
controversy as well as
explorationand has stimulated
further thinking and development
of therapy. It has provided a
Its focus on insights, intrapsychic detailed and comprehensive
dynamics, and long-term treatment is descriprion of personality structure
often not valued by clients who prefer to and functioning. It has brought
learn coping skills for dealing with into prominence factors such as
pressing daily concerns. Internal focus is the unconscious as a determinant
often in conflict with cultural values that of behavior and the role of trauma
stress and interpersonal and during the first 6 years of life. It
environmental focus. has developed several techniques
for tapping the unconscious and
shed light on the dynamics of
transference and
countertransference, resistance,
anxiety, and the mechanisms of
ego defense.
 A key contribution is the influence
This approach uses a detailed interview
that Adlerian concepts have had
about one's family background; this can
on other sysems and the
conflict with cultures that have injunctions
intergation of these concepts into
against disclosing family matters. Some
various contemporary therapies.
clients may view the counselor as an
This is one of the first approaches
authority who will provide answers to
to therapy that was humanistic,
problems, which conflicts with the
unified, holistic, and goal-oriented
egalitarian, person-to-person spirit as a
and that put an emphasis on
way to reduce social distance.
social and psychological factors.

Its major contribution is

recognition of the need for a
subjective approach based on a
Values of individuality, freedom,
complete view of the human
autonomy, and self-realization often
condition. It calls attention the
conflict with cultural values of collectivism,
need for a philosophical statement
respect for tradition, deference to
on what it means to be a person.
authority, and interdependence. Some
Stress on the I/Thou relationship
may be deterred by the absence of
lessens the chances of
specific techniques. Others will expect
dehumanizing therapy. It provides
more focus on surviving in their world.
a perspective for understanding
anxiety, guilt, freedom, death,
isolation, and commitment.
 Clients take an active stance and
assume responsibility for the
direction of therapy. This unique
approach has been subjected to
empirical testing, and as a result
Some of the core values of this approach both theory and methods have
may not be congruent with the client's been modified. It is an open
culture. Lack of counselor direction and system. People without advanced
structure are unacceptable for clients who training can benefit by translating
are seeking help and immediate answers the therapeutic conditions to both
from a knowledgeable professional. their personal and professional
lives. Basic concepts are
straightforward and easy to grasp
and apply. It is a foundation for
building a trusting relationship,
applicable to all therapies.

The emphasis on direct

experiecing and doing rather than
on merely talking about feelings
provides a perspective on growth
and enhancement, not merely a
treatment of disorders. It uses
Clients who have been culturally
clients' behavior as the basis for
conditioned to be emotionally reserved
making them aware of their inner
may not embrace Gestalt experiments.
creative potential. The approach
Some may not see how "being aware of
to dreams is a unique, creative
present experiencing" will lead to solving
tool to help clients discover basic
their problems.
conflicts. Therapy is viewed as an
existential encounter; it is
process-oriented, not technique-
oriented. It recognizes nonverbal
behavior as a key to
understanding.

Family members may not value clients'
newly acquired assertive style, so clients
must be taught how to cope with
resistance by others. Counselors need to
help clients assess the possible
consequences of making behavioral
changes.
Before too quickly attempting to change
the beliefs and actions of clients, it is
essential for the therapist to understand approaches; and a methodology
respect their world. Some clients may
have serious reservations about
questioning their basic cultural values and integrated into other mainstream
beliefs. Clients could become dependent therapies. REBT makes full use of
on the therapist for deciding what are the action-oriented homework, various
appropriate ways to solve them.
Emphasis is on assessment and
evaluation techniques, thus
providing a basis for accountable
practice. Specific problems are
identified, and clients are kept
informed about progress toward
their goals. The approach has
demonstrated effectiveness in
many areas of human functioning.
The roles of the therapist as
reinforcer, model, teacher, and
consultant are explicit. The
approach has undergone
extensive expansion, and
research literature abounds. No
longer is it a mechanistic
approach, for it now makes room
for cognitive factors and
encourages self-directed
programs for behavioral change.
Major contributions include
emphasis on a comprehensive
and eclectic therapeutic practice;
numerous cognitive, emotive and
behavioral techniques; an
openness to incorporating
techniques from other
for challenging and changing
faulty thinking. Most forms can be
psychoeducational methods, and
keeping records of progress. CT is
a structured therapy that has a
good track record for treating
depression and anxiety in a short
time.
 This is a positive approach with an
ation orientation that relies on
simple and clear concepts that are
easily grasped in many helping
professions. It can be used by
This approach stresses taking charge of
teachers, nurses, ministers,
one's own life, yet some clients are more
educators, social workers, and
interested in changing their external
counselors. Due to the direct
environmental. Counselor needs to
methods, it appeals to many
appreciate the role of discrimination and
clients who are often seen as
racism and help clients deal with social
resistant to therapy. It is a short-
and political realities.
term approach that can be applied
to a diverse population, and it has
been a significant force in
challenging the medical model of
therapy.

The feminist perspective is

responsible for encouraging
increasing numbers of women to
question gender stereotypes and
This model has been crticized for its bias to reject limited views of what a
toward the values of White, middle-class, woman is expected to be. It is
heterosexual women nor to men. paving the way for gender-
Therapists need to assess with their sensitive practice and bringing
clients the price of making significant attention to the gendered uses of
personal change, which may result in power in relationships. The unified
isolation from extended family as clients feminist voice brought attention to
assume new roles and make llife the extent and implications of child
changes. abuse, incest, rape, sexual
harassment, and domestic
violence. Feminist principles and
interventions can be incorporated
in other therapy approaches.
 The brevity of these approaches
fit well with the limitations imposed
by a managed care structure. The
emphasis on client strengths and
Some clients come to therapy wanting to
competence appeals to clients
talk about their problems and may be put
who want to create solutions and
off by the insistence on talking about
revise their life stories in a positive
exceptions to their problems. Clients may
direction. Clients are not blamed
view the therapist as an expert and be
for their problems but are helped
reluctant to view themselves as experts.
to understand how they might
Certain clients may doubt the helpfulness
relate in more satisfying ways to
of a therapist who assumes a "not-
such problems. A strength of
knowing" postion.
these approaches in the question
format that invites clients to view
themselves in new and more
effective ways.

From a systemic perspective,

neither the individual nor the
family is blamed for a particular
Family therapy rests on value
dysfunction. The family is
assumptions that are not congruent with
empowered through the process
the values of clients from some cultures.
of identifying and exploring
Western concepts such as individuation,
interactional patterns. Working
self-actualization, self-descrimination,
with an entire unit provides a new
independence, and self-expression may
perspective on understanding and
be foreign to some clients. In some
working through both individual
cultures, admitting problems within the
problems and relationship
family is shameful. The value of "keeping
concerns. By exploring one;s
problems within the family" may make it
family of origin, there are
difficult to explore conflicts openly.
increased opportunities to resolve
other conflicts in systems outside
of the family.
 Limitations of the Approaches

Requires lengthy training for

therapists and much time and
expense for clients. The model
stresses biological and
instinctual factors to the neglect
of social, cultural, and
interpersonal ones. Its methods
are less applicable for solving
specific daily life problems of
clients and may not be
appropriate for some ethnic and
cultural groups. Many clients lack
the degree of ego strength
needed for regressive and
reconstructive therapy. It may be
inappropriate for certain
counseling settings.
 Weak in terms of precision,
testability, and empirical validity.
Few attempts have been made
to validate the basic concepts by
scientific methods. Tends to
oversimplify some complex
human problems and is based
heavily on common sense.

Many basic concepts are fuzzy

and ill-defined, making its
general framework abstract at
times. Lacks a systematic
statement of principles and
practices of therapy. Has limited
applicability to lower functioning
and nonverbal clients and to
clients in extreme crisis who
need direction.
 Possible danger from the
therapist who remains passive
and inactive, limiting responses
to reflection. Many clients feel a
need for greater direction, more
structure, and more techniques.
Clients in crisis may need more
directive measures. Applied to
individual counseling, some
cultural groups will expect more
counselor activity.

Techniques lead to intense

emotional expression: if these
feelings are not explored and if
cognitive work is not done,
clients are likely to be left
unfinished and will not have a
sense of integration of their
learning. Clients who have
difficulty using imagination may
not profit from certain
experiments.
 Major criticisms are that it may
change behavior but not feelings;
that it ignores the relational
factors in therapy; that it does not
provide insight; that it ignores
historical causes of present
behavior; that it involves control
by the therapist; and that it is
limited in its capacity to address
certain aspects of the human
condition.

Tends to play down emotions,

does not focus on exploring the
unconscious or underlying
conflicts, de-emphasizes the
value of insight, and sometimes
does not give enough weight to
the client's past. REBT, being
confrontational therapy, might
lead to premature termination.
CBT might be too structured for
some clients.
 Discounts the therapeutic value
of exploration of the client's past,
dreams, the unconscious, early
childhood experiences, and
transference. The approach is
limited to less complex problems.
It is a problem-solving therapy
that tends to discourage
exploration of deeper emotional
issues.

A possible limitation is the

potential for therapists to impose
a new set of values on clients -
such as striving for equality,
power in relationships, defining
oneself, freedom to pursue a
career outside the home, and the
right to an education. Therapists
need to keep in mind that clients
are their own best experts, which
means it is up to them to decide
which values to live by.
There is little empirical validation
of the effectiveness of therapy
outcomes. Some critics conted
that these approaches endorse
cheerleading and an overly
positive perspective. Some are
critical of the stance taken by
most postmodern therapists
regarding assessment and
diagnosis, and also react
negatively to the "not-knowing"
stance of the therapist. Because
some of the solution-focused
techniques are relatively easy to
learn, practitioners may use
these interventions in a
mechanical way or implement
these techniques without a
second rationale.

Limitations include problems in

being able to involve all the
members of a family in the
therapy. Some family members
may be resistant to changing the
structure of the system.
Therapists' self-knowledge and
willingness to work on their own
family-of-origin issues is crucial,
for the potential for
countertransference is high. It is
essential that the therapist be
well trained, receive quality
supervision, and be competent in
assessing and treating
individuals in a family context.