Revision for final exam 2019

HUMAN BIOLOGY YEAR 10

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FOR INTERNAL CIRCULATION ONLY

 CHAPTER 3: CELLS
 Cell Theory: Cells are the basic structural and functional units of plants and
animals – the building blocks that make up all living organisms.

 Basic structure of cells includes cell membrane, cytoplasm and

organelles.

 Cell membrane (also called plasma membrane) structure:

 Contains phospholipid molecules arranged into two layers.
 Phospholipids molecules contain a hydrophilic head on the outside and
a hydrophobic tail on the inside.
 Between the phospholipid molecules are cholesterol and protein
molecules that transport substance into and out of the cell.

 Cell membrane functions:

 Separates cells from each other
 Separates cells from external environments
 Determines which substances get into or out of a cell.

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 Cytoplasm: thick fluid inside the cell that suspends all organelles within a cell.

 Organelles: structures that are suspended by the cytoplasm within a cell.

 Golgi body (Golgi apparatus): modifies proteins and package them in
vesicles for secretion from the cell.
 Ribosomes: where amino acids are joined to make proteins.
 Nucleus: contains genetic material, mostly DNA. Nucleus contains:
o Nucleolus: located inside the nucleus which plays a part in the
manufacture of proteins.
o Nuclear membrane: separate the nucleus from the cytoplasm.
 Mitochondria: releases energy for the cell through the process of
cellular respiration.
 Lysosomes: contain digestive enzymes that break down substances
taken into the cell or worn-out organelles.
 Endoplasmic reticulum: provides a surface for chemical reactions to
take place, store and transport material.
o Rough endoplasmic reticulum: have ribosomes on the surface.
o Smooth endoplasmic reticulum: have no ribosomes on the
surface.

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 Parts and functions of a compound microscope:

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CHAPTER 18: DNA AND INHERITED
DIFFERENCES
 DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid):
 A molecule found in the cells of all organisms.
 DNA function -> Contains genetic information that determines the
structure of the cell and the way it functions.
 Each DNA molecule contains thousands of genes and therefore contains
thousands of genetic information.
 Human cells have 46 DNA molecules.

 DNA structure:
 Contains two strands of alternating sugars phosphates with pairs of
nitrogen bases forming cross-links between the two strands.
 The four nitrogen bases include:
o Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T).
o Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G).

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 DNA threads are coiled around proteins so that they can fit inside the nucleus
of the cell. At this form, the DNA threads are called chromosomes.

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 DNA fingerprint: a technique used for identification. In this technique, DNA
molecules are cut and separated into pieces. These pieces are then placed
onto an X-ray film and appear as bands.

 Variation: differences in characteristics between individuals.

 Pedigree symbols and analysis:

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 ABO blood group systems:
 Blood type A antigens: IAIA or IAi
 Blood type B antigens: IBIB or IBi
 Blood type AB antigens: IAIB
 Blood type O antigens: ii

 Dominant vs Recessive:
 Dominant: a dominant trait is controlled by an allele that is not masked
by other alleles.
 Recessive: a recessive trait is controlled by an allele that is masked by
another allele.
 Example: a person with blood type A can have antigen IAi, meaning the
recessive antigen of blood type O (which is i) is masked by the dominant
antigen of blood type A (which is IA).

 Gene vs Alleles:
 Gene: sections of DNA molecules that determine the hereditary
characteristics.
 Alleles: alternative forms of a gene.
 Example: gene that determines eye colors has alleles for different eye
colors.

 Genotype vs Phenotype:
 Genotype: genetic make-up of a person.
 Phenotype: the appearance of a person as determined by their
genotypes.
 Example: if a person has a phenotype of blood type AB, the genotype of
this person will be IAIB.

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  Homozygous vs heterozygous:
 Homozygous: the situation where a person has the same alleles for a
particular characteristic.
 Heterozygous: the situation where a person has different alleles for a
particular characteristic.

 Interactions of genes and the environment:

 Many characteristics can be modified by the environment such as skin
color. In summer, light-skinned people develop darker skin which
lightens again during winter months.
 Exercise and training programs can also modify physical characteristics.
For example, professional swimmers tend to have broad shoulders as
well as enlarged lung capacity.
 The food we eat everyday also affects many inherited characteristics.
Diets, specifically certain foods may reduce the risk of cancer.

CHAPTER 11&12: MUSCULAR SYSTEM

 Three types of muscles:

Skeletal muscle Smooth muscle Cardiac muscle

Make up the muscles that Made up of cells that we
are attached to the bones. cannot contract voluntarily.
We have voluntary control They are found in the walls
over these muscles. of organs such as stomach
and intestines.
Makes up most of the
heart. When heart muscle
contracts, it pumps the
blood.

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 Structure of skeletal muscles:
 There are about 600 skeletal muscles that are attached to the bones of
the skeleton.
 Muscle fibres: skeletal muscle cells can vary in length; therefore, they
are not called cells. Skeletal muscle cells are called muscle fibres.
 Muscles fibres are held together by sheaths of connective tissue. These
tissues join each other and blend to form a tendon.
 Fibrils: smaller structures that are found in each of the muscle fibres.

 Muscle tone:
 Muscle tone is the maintenance of partial contraction of skeletal muscles
caused by constant contraction of different fibres taking turns to contract.
 These partial contractions tighten a muscle but do not cause a particular
movement.
 The role of muscle tone is to hold many of our body parts in position.

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 Movement at a joint:
 Antagonists: if muscles contract, pulling a bone in one direction,
another set of muscles must contract to pull the bone in the opposite
direction. Muscles that have opposite actions are called antagonists.
 Some antagonists include:
o Flexors, muscles that bend a limb vs extensors, muscles that
straighten a limb.
o Origin, the end of a muscle that is joined to the stationery bone
vs insertion, the end of a muscle that attached to the moving
bone.

 Types of movements:
 Flexion: decreases the angle between the articulating bones.
 Extension: increases the angle between the articulating bones.
 Abduction: movement away from the midline of the body.
 Adduction: movement towards the midline of the body.
 Rotation: movement of a bone around its long axis.

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CHAPTER 21: NUTRITION AND DIET

 A healthy diet:
 Enjoy a wide variety of nutritious foods:
o Cereals.
o Lean meat, fish, poultry and alternatives.
o Milks, yoghurts, chees, and/or alternatives.
o Limit saturated fat and choose foods low in fat.
o Limit alcohol intake.
o Consume only moderate amounts of sugars and foods containing
added sugars.
 Prevent weight gain.
 Care for your food.
 Encourage and support breast-feeding.

 Nutrient groups and their uses in the body:

See tables 21.1 and 21.2 on pages 254 and 255 in the textbook.

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 CHAPTER 5: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
 Structure and function of the digestive system:
Organs Functions
Mouth cavity Mechanical and chemical digestion of food by
teeth and saliva
Pharynx Where food is pushed into the esophagus
Salivary glands Dissolves food so it can be tasted
Esophagus Carries food from the mouth to the stomach
Liver Produces bile to emulsify fat in the small
intestine
Stomach Where chemical breakdown of proteins and
store food.
Gall bladder Stores bile and releases it to the small
intestine
Pyloric sphincter Muscle that regulates the flow of material
from the stomach to duodenum
Duodenum First part of the small intestine
Pancreas Produces pancreatic juice
Caecum First part of the large intestine
Transverse, ascending Absorbs water, minerals and vitamins.
and descending colon
Small intestine Absorbs digested food
Appendix Has no functions
Rectum Final part the large intestine
Anus Opening surrounding by anal sphincter

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 Alimentary canal:
 The alimentary canal is the continuous tube that runs from the mouth to
the anus.
 The alimentary canal makes up the digestive system together with the
pancreas and the gallbladder.

 Six basic activities of the digestive system:

 Ingestion of food and water.
 Mechanical digestion of food.
 Chemical digestion of food.
 Movement of food along the alimentary canal.
 Absorption of digested food and water into blood and lymph.
 Elimination of material that is not absorbed.

 Mechanical digestion of food:

 Mouth _ teeth and saliva:
o Teeth: chewing, tearing and crushing food in mouth.
o Saliva:
 Lubricates mouth for swallowing.
 Contains enzyme salivary amylase -> begins starch
digestion.
 Stomach:
 Mixing and grinding food with its muscle layers.

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  Chemical digestion of food:

Once food reaches the stomach…

 Stomach:
o Secretes gastric juice, that includes:
 HCl
 Mucus
 Enzyme pepsin -> breaks down protein into polypeptides.

Once food reaches the small intestine…

 Pancreas: secretes pancreatic juice into small intestine, which

includes:
 Enzyme pancreatic amylase -> breaks starch into disaccharides.
 Enzyme pancreatic protease -> breaks protein & polypeptides into
peptides.
 Enzyme pancreatic lipase -> breaks lipids into fatty acids & glycerol.

 Small intestine: secretes intestinal juice, which includes:

 Enzyme amylase -> breaks disaccharides into monosaccharides (simple
sugars).
 Enzyme peptidase -> breaks peptides into amino acids.
 Enzyme lipase -> breaks lipids into fatty acids & glycerol.

 Structure of villi:
 Lining the walls of the small intestine are small structures called villi.
 Inside each villus is a lymph capillary called a lacteal, surrounded by a
network of blood capillaries.
 Nutrients broke down are absorbed through these villi.

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 Absorption of nutrients:
 Amino acids are absorbed into the blood capillaries by active transport.
 Simple sugars are absorbed into the blood capillaries by active transport.
 Vitamins and minerals are absorbed into the blood capillaries by
diffusion.
 Fatty acids and glycerol recombine to form fat. Tiny fat droplets enter the
lacteals.

CHAPTER 5: EXCRETORY SYSTEM

 Structures and functions of excretory organs:
 Renal veins: carry blood into the kidneys.
 Renal arteries: carry filtered blood out of the kidneys.
 Kidneys: filter out substances out from the blood, which forms urine.
 Ureters: carries the urine from the kidneys down to the urinary bladder.
 Urinary bladder: stores urine until released to the outside of the body.
 Urethra: a tube in the penis that carries urine out of the body.

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 Microscopic structure of the kidneys:

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 Nephron structure:
 There are about 1.2 million nephrons in each human kidney, surrounded
by a complex network of capillaries.
 Nephrons are responsible for removing wastes from the blood and
regulating blood composition.

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 CHAPTER 11: SKELETAL SYSTEM
 Functions of bones:
 Provide a firm framework that gives shape to the body and supports the
body parts.
 Allow movement.
 Protect vital organs.
 Store minerals salts and fat.
 Contain red marrow which contains stem cells that can differentiate to
blood cells.

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 Axial vs appendicular bones:

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 Structure of bones:
 A shaft called diaphysis that makes up the main portion of the bone.
 The two ends, called the epiphyses, which are the enlarged ends of the
bone.
 A thin layer of cartilage, the articular cartilage, covers each epiphysis.

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 Microscopic structure of bones:
 Bones include many units called osteons. At the center of each osteon
is a central canal.
 Around the layers of central canal are the layers of bony matrix called
lamellae. Between the lamellae spaces are called lacunae.
 A bone cell called osteocyte, occupies each lacuna. Tiny canals called
canaliculi run between the lacunae. Projections from the bone cells enter
the canaliculi and make contact with adjacent bone cells. In this way,
materials can be passed from cell to cell.

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