CONSCIOUSNESS
relatively more responsive
- It is a state of awareness of the outside world and
one’s own mental activity.
Levels of Consciousness
 Conscious Level – an awareness of moment-to-
moment activities and thoughts.
 Preconscious Level – stores sensations, memories,
inferences, and assumptions
 Non-conscious Level – includes physiological
processes that we are not conscious of.
 Unconscious Level – (according to Freud) it holds our
sexual aggressive, and other impulses
States of Consciousness
 Passive state of consciousness – not directed or
actively controlled and manipulated.
 Active state of consciousness – directed and
controlled by the individual.
 Altered state of consciousness – occurs when
changes in the stream of consciousness
o Daydreaming. Daydream is a shift of attention away
o Hallucination. It is a false perceptual experience.
o Depersonalization. This refers to the perceptual
experience of one’s body becoming “distorted” or
“unreal” in some way.
o Meditation. This is one method of searching for an
alternative to waking consciousness.
o Hypnotism. This is an altered state of consciousness
brought on by special techniques
o Altering consciousness with drugs. most distinct
type of altered consciousness which involves taking
chemicals into the body, or using drugs.
Four major categories:
• Stimulants – these are drugs that increase the
activity of the central nervous system
• Depressants – they reduce the activity of the central
nervous system.
• Hallucinogens – they produce dreamlike alterations
in perceptual experience.
• Inhalants – these are common households chemicals
SLEEP
 it is a state of unconsciousness in which the brain is
 It is not a single state but a complex combination of
states
 Electroencephalograph – device for recording the
brain’s electrical activity.
 Electrooculogram – can record eye movements.
 Electromyogram – can record the electrical activity
of muscles.
STAGE 1(4–5%)
 Light sleep
 The brain produces high amplitude theta waves.
 Many experience muscle contractions called hypnic
myoclonia
STAGE 2 (45–55 %)
 Onset of sleep
 rhythmic brain wave activity known as sleep
spindles.
STAGE 3 (4-6%) and 4 (12-15%)
 By these stages, the brain produces delta waves
 It is difficult to wake someone during stages 3 and 4,
which together are called deep sleep.
STAGE 5: REM (25%)
 First occurs about 90 minutes after falling asleep and
recurs about every 90 minutes,
Circadian Rhythms
 These are the natural biological cycles
 body’s biological “clock” called SUPRACHIASMATIC
NUCLEUS (SCN) --- contains about 20,000 neurons.
Common Circadian Rhythm Disorders:
 Jet Lag or Rapid Time Zone Change Syndrome
 Shift work Sleep Disorder
 Delayed Sleep Phase Syndrome (DSPS)
 Advanced Sleep Phase Syndrome (ADPS)
Sleep Disorders
 Insomnia – this refers to the inability to fall asleep or
stay asleep.
  Hypersomnia – a sleeping problem characterized by  Generalization – responding to similar stimuli
sleeping longer without further training.

 Narcolepsy – a daytime sleep disorder in which a  Discrimination – individual learns to produce a

wide-awake person conditioned response

 Sleep Apnea – a condition in which breathing stops OPERANT CONDITIONING

periodically during sleep.
 Operant conditioning involves increasing a behavior
Sleep Phenomenon by following it with a reward

 Nightmare – a dream that occurs during REM sleep  BF Skinner – one of the most famous psychologists in
whose content is exceptionally frightening history who coined the term operant conditioning.

 Night terror – an upsetting nocturnal experience Skinner Box

 Sleep walking (Somnambulism) – brief episodes of  It is a barren chamber in which an animal could earn
leaving food

 Sleep talking (Somniloquy) – act of speaking during Principles of Operant Conditioning

sleep.
 Positive reinforcement – powerful method for
Learning controlling the behavior of both animals and people

 Negative reinforcement – method of strengthening

- It is basic to all aspects of life because it leads to
a behavior
the acquisition of knowledge
a. Escape – performing a particular behavior leads to the
- It is a lifetime process.
removal of an unpleasant stimulus.
Simple Forms of Learning
b. Avoidance – learning to avoid or prevent an
 HABITUATION – tending to become familiar with a unpleasant situation before its occurrence.
stimulus
 Punishment – negative consequence of a behavior
 SENSITIZATION – it is the increase that occurs in an
COGNITIVE LEARNING
organism’s responsiveness to stimuli
- It is a learning which involves perception and
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
knowledge --- memory, thinking and representation.
 is a reflexive or automatic response which transfers
 Insight learning
from one stimulus to another.
- Wolfgang Kohler conducted an experiment
Ivan Pavlov’s Experiments
wherein he used an ape (Sultan)
 Classical conditioning was discovered by accident in
 Modelling – learning by watching others
the early 1900’s when Pavlov was studying how
saliva helps the digestive process. - Albert Bandura was one of the most
influential contemporary proponents
 Food – unconditioned stimulus,

Salivation – unconditioned response

Bell – neutral stimulus; the sound normally

Transfer of Learning
Principles of Classical Conditioning
- It is the ability to apply what has been learned in one
 Acquisition – initial learning of the conditioned
situation that are in some way similar.
response.
Types of Transfer:
 Extinction – describes the elimination of the
conditioned response  Positive transfer – learning in one situation facilitates
learning in another situation.
  Negative transfer – has a harmful effect on learning  Chunking – perceiving related items as larger unit or
in another situation. cluster.

 Zero transfer – no observable influence or change in Memory Disorders

MEMORY  Amnesia – disorder involving loss of memory.

- it involves acquiring, retaining and retrieving  Retrograde Amnesia –events prior to some
information. critical brain injury.

Remembering  Anterograde Amnesia –event that occurs

after a brain injury.
- It is the ability to retrieve stored information and
bring it into consciousness.  Aphasia – impairment in the ability to use or
remember language.
Basic Types of Memory:
 Anomic Aphasia – inability to recall the
o Episodic Memory – memory for particular events of
name of objects.
one’s own life.
 Wernicke’s Aphasia – inability to locate an
o Semantic Memory – memory that concerns the
item precisely in long-term storage.
meaning of words and concepts.
 Broca’s Aphasia – person cannot recall the
o Procedural Memory – involves how to do things.
“shape” or “sound” of an item
Basic Memory Process
 Condition Aphasia – damage is in the upper
 Encoding – sensory information is put into various portion of the temporal lobe.
memory codes
FORGETTING
 Storage – simply means maintaining information in
- IT IS A FAILURE TO RETrIeVE INFORMATION.
the system over a time.
Causes of Forgetting
 Retrieval – process of finding information stored in
memory 1. Decay Theory – presumes that when a new fact is
learned or a new experience occurs
Stages of Memory
2. Interference Theory – states that forgetting occurs
 Sensory memory stage – involves holding
because other memories interfere
information from the senses
 Proactive interference – memories from
 Iconic memory – register for visual images.
prior learning.
 Echoic memory – register for auditory
 Retroactive interference – memories from
items.
later learning.
 Short-term memory – temporarily holds information
3. Reconstruction Theory – explains forgetting as a
in consciousness.
change in the structure of a memory
 Long-term memory – involves the storage of
4. Freud’s repression theory – according to Freud,
information for much longer periods
people often push unacceptable, anxiety
Strategies for Remembering

 Recall – ability to retrieve information from long-

MENTAL ABILITIES
term memory with few cues.
INTELLIGENCE
 Recognition – measure of memory based on the
ability to select correct information - Refers to the cognitive ability of an individual to
learn from experience, to reason well
 Relearning – measure of memory based on the
length of time it takes
THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
Charles Spearman
September 10, 1863 – September 17, 1945
 Spearman’s numerous achievements also include his
association as a professor of mind and logic
 He obtained the entitlement of professor of
psychology in 1928 when a separate department of
psychology was created at the university.
Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory
 According to Spearman, there were two factors of
measure for intelligence.
 “g” factor (general intelligence)
 “s” factor (specific intelligence)
 A “g” two mental functions while an “s” single
mental function.
Jean Piaget
August 9, 1896 – September 16, 1980
 He was an influential experimenter and theorist in
the field of developmental psychology and in the
study of human intelligence.
 He studied zoology
 1920 – he worked with Théodore Simon at the Alfred
Binet Laboratory in Paris where he evaluated the
results of standardized reasoning tests that Simon
had designed.
 1925 – he took the chair of philosophy at the
University of Neuchâtel.
 He considered himself as “genetic epistemologist”
with his main interest being how one comes to know
things.
Louis Thurstone
May 29, 1887 – September 30, 1955
 In 1914, while instructor of geometry and drafting
 He was the president of American Psychological
Association (1932) and the first president of the
American Psychometric Society (1936).
Thurstone’s Weighted Group-Factor Theory
 He believed that intelligence needed to be measured
on all seven mental abilitie
 Verbal meaning – understanding ideas and word
meaning.
 Number – speed and accuracy in performing
arithmetic computations.
 Space – ability to visualize form relationships in
three dimensions.
 Perceptual speed –distinguish visual details and
similarities and differences between objects.
 Word fluency – speed in thinking of words.
 Memory – ability to memorize words, numbers, etc.
 Inductive reasoning – ability to derive a rule from
given information.
History of Intelligence Testing
 1905 – Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon developed
the first intelligence test for children known as the
Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale which was written in
French.
 1908 – The Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale was
revised, this time arranging the tests into age
groups.
 1911 – The final revision of the Binet-Simon Test.
Although Binet’s original test was designed for
children ages 3-11
 1911 – M.H. Goddard (American psychologist)
translated the Binet-Simon Test in English.
 1914 – William Stern came up with a way of
assessing children’s degree of retardation
,intelligence quotient (IQ).
 1916 – Lewis Terman made the famous revision of
the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale and called it
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
 1949 – David Wechsler developed a test known as
the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC).
  1967 – Wechsler developed the Wechsler Preschool  MENTAL RETARDATION
and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI)
- This term is used to describe people with
 1981 – Wechsler revised the WISC and became very low IQ
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) which
- “developmentally disabled” or “mentally
measured both performance and ability
challenged”
 1983 – Alan and Nadeen Kaufman developed a test
Factors Affecting Intellectual Development:
known as the Kaufman Assessment Battery for
Children (K-ABC) --- individually administered 1. Heredity
measure of intelligence
2. Environment
Kinds of Testing
3. Sex
1. Intelligence test – designed to measure a variety of
mental functions 4. Culture

2. Aptitude test –develop skills or acquire knowledge. 5. Socio-economic differences

3. Achievement test –knowledge or proficiency of an 6. Race

individual
Howard Gardner
4. Interest test – measures how much an individual
 He described himself as a “studious child who gained
likes or dislikes various activities.
much pleasure from playing the piano”.
5. Personality test – designed to measure personality
 He was inspired by the works of Jean Piaget to study
traits.
developmental psychology.

 He was mentored by the famous psychoanalyst Erik

Erikson.

 Gardner developed a theory designed to synthesize

his research and observations.

 1983 – he published Frames of Mind which outlined

his theory of multiple intelligences.

Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

 It is unlike traditional theories of intelligence that

focus on one, single general intelligence.

 Gardner believed that people have multiple different

ways of thinking and learning.

1. Linguistic intelligence – includes the ability

to effectively use language

2. Logical-mathematical language – capacity

to analyze problems logically

Unusual Intelligence 3. Musical intelligence – involves skill in the

 GIFTEDNESS
- People with exceptionally high IQ scores
- They are academically superior.
performance, composition
4. Body-kinesthetic intelligence – involves the
potential of using one’s whole body
 Spatial intelligence – involves the potential to
recognize and use the patterns

 Interpersonal intelligence – concerned with the

capacity to understand the intentions
  Intrapersonal intelligence – involves the capacity to
understand oneself
- Defense mechanisms are complex and varied
 Naturalist intelligence – enables human beings to
recognize, categorize and draw
1.
PERSONALITY
- It refers to the sum total of the typical ways of
acting, thinking, and feeling
- It comes from the Latin word “persona” which
originally meant a mask
 Self – it is the central core of personality.
 Self-image – individual’s perception of his identity
 Projected self – it is the way an individual behaves or
perceived by other people.
Theories of Personality
Psychoanalytic Theory
2.
- This approach was introduced by Sigmund Freud.
- It emphasizes childhood experiences as critically
important in shaping adult personality.
ID
- This is present at birth --- as the baby emerges from
the womb into the reality of life
- It is ruled by the pleasure principle
- If we want to do a particular thing, we will do it now
EGO
- demands of the id and the superego
- It operates according to the reality principle
- the id’s drive for immediate satisfaction until an
appropriate outlet can be found
SUPEREGO
- This is the moral part of the personality --- involving
right and wrong
3.
- Divided into two parts:
• Ego-ideal – standards of good behavior that
we aspire to
• Conscience – seen as an “inner voice” that
tells us what is right and wrong,
Defense Mechanism
- It is a way of reducing anxiety by distorting reality.
behavioral devices
Aggressive reactions – take the form of destructive
or hostile attacks
o Displaced aggression – person transfers and
diverts his aggressive behavior
• Scapegoating
• Free-floating anger
• Suicide
o Identification – the individual enhances his
feeling of importance
o Introjection – the frustrated individual
incorporates into his personality
o Projection – individual projects or assigns
his own undesirable characteristics
Withdrawal reaction – involves retreating or running
away from threatening situations.
o Fantasy or daydreaming – satisfying
imaginative fulfillment of desires
• Conquering-hero type – the
individual sees himself as
confident, poised, successful.
• The suffering-hero type or martyr
type – frequently resorted to by
the individual who pities himself.
o Repression – threatening or painful
thoughts and desires
o Regression – an attempt to cope with
difficult situation
o Nomadism – person continually wanders
from place to place
o Reaction formation – avoidance of anxiety-
provoking situation
Compromise reactions – these involve the lowering
of one’s level of aspiration
o Sublimation – mechanism in which
forbidden
o Compensation - mechanism whereby a
person attempts to overcome
 o Intellectualization – the individual escapes • Girls experience a similar crisis at this time of life
from threat into words. called Electra Complex

• Rationalization – involves an Latency Stage

invention of excuses (ages 7 – 11)

1. Sour-grapes – attitude • Many of the disturbing and conflicting feelings of

whereby a person unable children are buried in the sub-conscious mind
to obtain
• Their energies are now absorbed by such concerns
2. Sweet-lemon – attitude of as school learning, peer relations, sports, and other
accepting something you recreational activities
really do not want.
• Described as a relatively calm and stable period
• Isolation –avoids conflicts between
Genital Stage
two opposing desires
(ages 11 – adult)
Stages of Psychosexual Development
• Begins at puberty and represents the resurgence of
• According to Freud our skin gives us greatest the sex drive in adolescence
pleasure called erogenous zones --- sexually
• Freud felt that masturbation, oral sex,
sensitive area
homosexuality, and many other things we find
Oral Stage acceptable in adulthood today, were immature
(from birth – 18 months)
Eysenck’s Type Theory
• The center of the pleasure is mouth
- Hans Eysenck categorized people as certain types
• Infants derive much pleasure in sucking activities who hold dominant motives
such as sucking of fingers, toes or nipples
- He focused on higher levels of trait organization
• little satisfaction can result to Oral Fixation or Oral called types.
Personality --- tendency to smoke
- Types refers to the broad collections of traits
Anal Stage
1. Emotional stability –people have control over their
(18 months – 3 years)
feelings.
• The children’s attention is directed to the anal region
2. Introversion – tendency of some individuals to be
• At this time parents put emphasis on toilet training shy

• cause or problems associated with fixation of 3. Extroversion – tendency of some individuals to be

development at this stage: friendly

o Anal retentive – obsession in cleanliness, 4. Psychoticism – sometimes referred to as tough or

perfection, and control tender mindedness

o Anal expulsive – excessive messiness and Humanistic Theory

disorderly habits
- It emphasizes the potential of human beings for
Phallic Stage growth, creativity and spontaneity.
(ages 3 – 7)
- It stresses the uniqueness of the individual and his or
• Pleasure gratification of children shifts from the anal her freedom to make choices.
to the genital region
- According to Abraham Maslow, the self-actualized
• activities associated with stroking and manipulating person has reached the highest level of personal
their sex organs development

• father for their mother’s attention and affection - Two (2) groups of human needs:
(Oedipus Complex) – from the story of Oedipus in
Greek Mythology
 - Basic needs – physiological (food, water,
sleep, etc.) and psychological (affection,
security, self-esteem)

- Metaneeds – justice, goodness, beauty,

order, and unity.

Personality Assessment

1. Projective Tests – tests in which personality

characteristics are revealed

o Rorschach Inkblot Test

o Thematic Apperception Test

o Expressive Technique (Human Figure

Drawing Test and Toy Test)

2. Behavioral Assessment – consists of a group of

procedures used for diagnosis, evaluation

o Behavioral Assessment Interview

o Naturalistic Observation

o Self-Monitoring