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Discussion: 2.1 Tutorial Data
Discussion: 2.1 Tutorial Data
DISCUSSION
Cries : Weak
Heart rate : 150x/minutes
Respiratory rate : 42x/minutes
Temperature : 36,6ºC
Cyanosis (-)
Dyspneu (-)
Icteric (-)
Bodylength : 47 cm
Birth weight : 2800 gram
Head circumference : 34 cm
Specific Examination:
Head : Nose: Nasal flaring (-), grunting (-)
Thorax : Chest retraction (-), Heart: heart sound I and II Normal, There’s no
murmur, Lungs: Normal vesicular and no ronchi
Abdomen : Flat, supple, bowel movement (+), umbilical cord normal
Extremity : Inspection: cycling motion of the leg was observed, there’s
no congenital defect
Genitalia : Anus: (+), meconium (+)
No Terms Clarifications
1. Cycling motion Sign of neonatal seizure, caused by sudden
abnormal and excessive electrical activity in the
brain.
Synthesis:
Seizures are paroxysmal alterations in neurologic function
caused by excessive synchronous depolarization of neurons within
the central nervous system (Krakauer and Carter, 2012). There are
four types of neonatal seizure, one of the type is subtle seizure
Usually occurs in association with other types of seizures and may
manifest with stereotypic movements of the extremities such as
bicycling or swimming movements (Dahlan, 2008; Sheth, 2017).
Birth asphyxia, although the correct definition is imprecise,
is an insult to the fetus or newborn due to failure to breath or
breathing poorly leading to decrease oxygen perfusion to various
organ. Asphyxia is a condition that occur when there is an
impairment of blood-gas exchange, resulting in hypoxemia (lack
of oxygen) and hypercapnia (accumulation of carbon dioxide).
The combination of the decrease in oxygen supply (hypoxia) and
blood supply (ischaemia) results in a cascade of biochemical
changes inside the body, whose events lead to neuronal cell death
and brain damage (Aslam et al., 2014).
Synthesis:
A neonate with mild HIE may present with absent rooting
and sucking reflexes initially. However, rooting and sucking
remained inadequate for breastfeeding well into the first week of
the participant’s life. An absent rooting reflex may not impact an
infant’s feeding functionally, but short sucking bursts may be
related to swallowing difficulties. Cerebral depression may cause
reduced alertness and a lower level of consciousness in infants
Cause Frequency
Hypoxic-ischaemic encephalopathy 30-53%
Intracranial haemorrhage 7-17%
Cerebral infarction 6-17%
Cerebral malformation 3-17%
Meningitis/septicemia 2-14%
Metabolic
Hypoglycaemia 0,1-5%
Hypocalcaemia, hypomagnesaemia 4-22%
Hypo-/hypernatremia 3-4%
Inborn errors of metabolism (such as pyridoxine dependency,
folinic-acid responsive seizures, glucose transporter defecr, non-
ketotic hyperglycinaemia, proprionic aciduria)
Kern icterus
1%
Maternal drug withdrawal 4%
Idiopathic 2%
Benign idiopathic neonatal seizures 1%
Neonatal epileptic syndromes
Congenital infections
Source: Pressler, 2003
Synthesis:
According to Kosim, et al (2008), the etiology of neonatal
seizures are:
- Asphyxia
Perinatal asphyxia causes hypoxic-ischemic
encephalopathy and is an important neurological problem in
the neonatal period, and causes neurological sequelae later
on. Intrauterine asphyxia is the most common cause of
hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. This is because
hypoxemia occurs, lack of oxygen to brain tissue. Both of
these conditions can occur together, one can be more
dominant but the ischemic factor is the most important factor
compared to hypoxemia.
- Intracranial Trauma and Bleeding
Trauma and intracranial bleeding usually occur in large
infants born to mothers with primiparous pregnancies. This
occurs during prolonged labor, difficult labor caused by fetal
position abnormalities in the uterus or precipitous birth
before the uterine cervix opens wide enough. In low birth
weight babies with a body weight of <1500 grams usually
bleeding occurs preceded by asphyxia. Intracranial
- Clonic seizures
These movements most commonly are associated with
electrographic seizures. They often involve 1 extremity or 1
side of the body. The rhythm of the clonic movements is
usually ,.slow, at 1-3 movements per second.
- Tonic seizures
These may involve 1 extremity or the whole body.
Focal tonic seizures involving 1 extremity often are
associated with electrographic seizures. Generalized tonic
seizures often manifest with tonic extension of the upper and
lower limbs and also may involve the axial musculature in
an opisthotonic fashion. Generalized tonic seizures mimic
decorticate posturing; the majority are not associated with
electrographic seizures.
- Myoclonic seizures
These may occur focally in 1 extremity or in several
body parts (in which case they are described as multifocal
myoclonic seizures). Focal and multifocal myoclonic
seizures typically are not associated with electrographic
correlates. These movements are thought to be non-epileptic
in nature and a reflection of severe encephalopathy.
Synthesis:
Neonatal seizures can be classified into four categories:
subtle, clonic, tonic, or myoclonic. Subtle seizures are more
common in premature infants and manifest most often as ocular
phenomena (tonic horizontal eye deviation with or without eye
jerking, sustained eye opening with ocular fixation), oral-buccal-
lingual movements (chewing or tongue thrusting), or “bicycling”
or stepping movements of the lower extremities. Subtle seizures
are not consistently associated with EEG changes (Krakauer and
Carter, 2012).
- Clonic Seizures
Consist of slow (1-3 /minute) rhythmic jerking
movements of the extremities. They may be focal or
multi-focal. Each movement is composed of a rapid
phase followed by a slow one.
Changing the position or holding the moving limb does
not suppress the movements. They are commonly seen in
full-term neonates >2500 grams
There is no loss of consciousness and they are associated
with focal trauma, infarction or metabolic disturbances.
- Myoclonic Seizures
Focal myoclonic seizures typically involve the flexor
muscles of the extremities.
Multi-focal myoclonic seizures present as asynchronous
twitching of several parts of the body.
Generalized myoclonic seizures present as massive
flexion of the head and trunk with extension or flexion of
the extremities. They are associated with diffuse CNS
pathology.
- Subtle (Fragmentary) Seizures
Usually occurs in association with other types of seizures and
may manifest with:
Stereotypic movements of the extremities such as
bicycling or swimming movements.
Deviation or jerking of the eyes with repetitive blinking.
Drooling, sucking or chewing movements.
Apnea or sudden changes in respiratory patterns.
Rhythmic fluctuations in vital signs.
Synthesis:
Both clinical and laboratory studies demonstrate that
seizures early in life can result in permanent behavioral
abnormalities and enhance epileptogenicity. In experimental
rodent models, the consequences of seizures are dependent upon
age, etiology, seizure duration, and frequency. Recurrent seizures
in immature rats result in long-term adverse effects on learning
and memory. These behavioral changes are paralleled by changes
in brain connectivity, dendritic morphology, excitatory and
inhibitory receptor subunits, ion channels, and neurogenesis.
These changes can occur in the absence of cell loss. Although
impaired cognitive function and brain changes have been well
Synthesis:
Extracellular accumulation of excitatory amino acids
(mainly glutamate) due to increased release as well as impaired
uptake; this causes the overactivation of neuronal glutamate
receptors, mainly the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor,
which results in an excessive intracellular influx of calcium
(Antonucci et al., 2014).
The resulting intracellular calcium accumulation has the
following effects: (a) activation of celldegrading enzymes (lipases,
phospholipases, proteases and endonucleases); (b) production of
oxygen free radicals through activation of Xanthine oxidase,
increased prostaglandin synthesis, and activation of Nitric Oxide
(NO) synthase (Antonucci et al., 2014).
Peroxidation of membrane lipids and direct damage of
protein and DNA as a result of the increase in free radical
formation and the subsequent depletion of normal antioxidant
defenses. Impaired mitochondrial function as a combined result of
Neonatal circulation
With the infant’s first breath and exposure to increased
oxygen levels, there is an increased blood flow to the lungs causing
the closure of the foramen ovale. Constriction of the ductus
arteriosus is a gradual process that results from a reduction of
pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR), increasing systemic
vascular resistance (SVR) and sensitivity to a rise in arterial PaO2
Newborn Reflexes
One of the neonate’s greatest strengts is a full set of useful
reflexes. A reflex is an involuntary and automatic response to a
stimulus.
Development
Name Response Significance
and course
Survival reflex
Breathing Repetitive inhalation Provides oxygen and
Permanent
reflex and expiration expel carbon dioxide
Eye-blink Closing or blinking Protect the eyes from
Permanent
reflex the eyes bright lights, adapt visual
Constriction of pupils
Pupilary reflex Protect against bright
to bright;dilatation to Permanent
lights
dark
Disappears
Rooting reflex over the first
Turning the head in
few weeks of
the direction of a
life and is Orients baby to the breast
tactile (touch)
replaced by
stimulus to the cheek
voluntary
head turning.
Sucking on object
Sucking reflex Allows baby to take in
placed (or taken ) into Permanent
nutrients
the mouth
Swallowing Allows baby to take in
Swallowing Permanent
reflex nutrients
Primitive reflexes
Usually
Its presence at birth and
Fanning and then disappears
disappearance in the first
curling the toes when within the
Babinsky reflex year are an indication of
the bottom of the foot first 8 months
normal neurogical
is stroked to 1 year of
development
life
Disappears in
first 3-4 Its presence at birth and
Curling of the fingers
months and is later disappearance in the
Palmar around object (such a
then replaced first year are an indication
grasping reflex finger) that touch the
by a of normal neurogical
baby’s palm
voluntary development
grasp
The arm
movements
and arching
of the back
disappear
A loud noise or
over the first
sudden change in the
4-6 months;
position of the baby’s
however, the
head will cause the
child
baby to throw his or Its presence at birth and
continues to
Moro reflex her arms outward, later disappearance are an
react to
arch the back, and indication of normal
unexpected
then bring the arms neurological development
noises or a
toward each other as
loss of bodily
if to hold onto
support by
something.
showing a
startle reflex
(which does
not
disappear).
An infant immersed
in water will display, Disappears in Its presence at birth and
Swimming
active movements of the first 4-6 later disappearance are an
reflex
the arms and legs and months. indication of normal
involuntarily hold his neurological development
or her breath (thus
Synthesis:
According to Kotaska et al (2009) For a woman with
suspected breech presentation, pre- or early labour ultrasound
Synthesis:
The APGAR score is a valuable method to determine the
health of newborns immediately after birth. It is determined by
allocating score to five (5) simple criteria, colour (Appearance),
heart rate (Pulse), reflex irritability (Grimace), muscle tone
(Activity), and breathing (Respiration). The purpose of the
APGAR score is to determine whether a newly born needs
immediate medical care. It is not designed to make long-term
predictions of child’s health. The APGAR score assessment is
indicated to all newly borns at one minute and five minutes
following delivery. An APGAR score of 0-3 represents severe
distress, 4-7 indicates moderate distress, and 7-10 indicates an
absence of difficuly in adjusting to extrauterine life (Queensland
Government, 2016).
In 1952, dr. Virginia Apgar devised a scoring system that
was rapid method of assessing the clinical status of the newborn
infant at 1 minute of age and the need for prompt intervention to
establish breathing. This scoring system provided a standardized
assessment for infants after delivery. Thus, the Apgar score
quantitates clinical signs of neonatal depression such as cyanosis
or pallor, bradycardia, depresses reflex response to stimulation,
hypotonia, and apnea or gasping respirations. The score is reported
at 1 minute and 5 minutes after birth for all infants, and at 5-minute
intervals thereafter until 20 minutes for infants with a score less
than 7. The Apgar score provides an accepted and convenient
method for reporting the status of the newborn infant immediately
after birth and the response to rescucitation if needed. However, it
has been inappropriately used to predict individual adverse
neurologic outcome. The purpose of this statement is to place the
Apgar score in its proper perspective (American Academy of
Pediatrics, 2015).
Synthesis:
Asphyxia results due to inadequate placental perfusion and
impaired gaseous exchange that may be caused by fetal factors
(fetal bradycardia, fetal thrombosis, and fetal hemorrhage),
maternal factors (preeclampsia, abruptio-placentae, maternal
hypotension, severe anemia, asthma and chronic vascular disease),
or tight nuchal cord and cord prolapse. Postnatal asphyxia results
from conditions causing neonatal pulmonary failure such as severe
hyaline membrane disease, meconium aspiration syndrome,
pneumonia, or congenital cardiac disease (Bano et al., 2017).
The basic physiologic processes that result in HIE, both in
preterm and term neonate, is asphyxia leading to brain ischemia
(reduced cerebral blood flow) and hypoxia (reduced cerebral
oxygen). Hypoperfusion, in conjunction with hypoxia, leads to a
cascade of events including acidosis, release of inflammatory
mediators and free radical formation. These biochemical
substances result in loss of normal cerebral autoregulation and
diffuse brain injury (neuronal cell death). The exact nature of the
injury depends on the severity and duration of hypoxia and degree
of brain maturation. In term infants, myelinated fibers are more
metabolically active and hence more vulnerable to HIE (Bano et
al., 2017).
4. Physical Examination
Activity : Hypoactive
Sucking response : Weak
Cries : Weak
Heart rate : 150x/minutes
Respiratory rate : 42x/minutes
Temperature : 36,6ºC
Cyanosis (-)
Dyspneu (-)
Icteric (-)
Bodylength : 47 cm
Birth weight : 2800 gram
Head circumference : 34 cm
a. What is the interpretation and mechanism of pathological
finding on physical examination?
Answer:
The interpretation of physical examination on table 2.3 below.
5. Specific Examination:
Head : Nose: Nasal flaring (-), grunting (-)
Thorax : Chest retraction (-), Heart: heart sound I and II Normal,
There’s no murmur, Lungs: Normal vesicular and no ronchi
Abdomen : Flat, supple, bowel movement (+), umbilical cord normal
Extremity : Inspection: cycling motion of the leg was observed, there’s
no congenital defect
Genitalia : Anus: (+), meconium (+)
a. What the interpretation and mechanism of the pathological
finding on specific examination?
Answer:
The interpretation of specific examination on table 2.4 below.
Synthesis:
- Phenorbarbital
Mechanism of Action Depresses sensory and motor cortex,
cerebellum Antiseizure activity occurs primarily where GABA
mediates neurotransmission Hypnotic effects of barbiturates result
from activity at GABA receptor in the polysynaptic midbrain
reticular formation (controls CNS arousal) Off-label use for
hyperbilirubinemia: Phenobarbital induces glucuronyl transferase
and hepatic bilirubin-binding Y-protein to lower serum bilirubin
concentrations (Sheth, 2017).
Absorption Bioavailability: 70-90% Onset: 5 min (IV)
Duration: 4-6 hr (IV/IM) Peak plasma time: 8-12 hr Therapeutic
plasma concentration: 10-40 mcg/mL; may require 3-4 weeks of
treatment to achieve therapeutic levels Distribution Protein bound:
20-45% Metabolism Metabolized by hepatic oxidative
hydroxylation Metabolites: Inactive enzymes induced: CYP1A2,
CYP2B6, CYP2C19, CYP2C9/10, CYP3A4 Elimination Half-
life: 50-140 hr Excretion: Urine (major) (Sheth, 2017).
- Phenytoin
Mechanism of action with promotes Na+ efflux or decreases
Na+ influx from membranes in motor cortex neurons; stabilizes
neuronal membrane slows conduction velocity (Sheth, 2017).
Absorption bioavailability: may vary between different
manufacturers; dependent on formulation Onset: 1 week (PO); 2-
24 hr (PO with loading dose); 0.5-1 hr (IV) Peak plasma time: 1.5-
3 hr (immediate-release); 4-12 hr (extended-release) Distribution
Protein bound: 95% (adults); 85% (infants); 80% (neonates) Vd:
0.6-0.7 L/kg (adults); 0.7 L/kg (children); 0.7-0.8 L/kg (infants);
0.8-0.9 L/kg (full-term neonate); 1-1.2 L/kg (premature neonate).
Metabolized by hepatic P450 enzyme CYP2C9 Metabolites:
Inactive Enzymes induced: CYP3A4 Elimination Half-life: 22 hr
(PO); 10-15 hr (IV) Excretion: Urine (Sheth, 2017).
12. How does the competences of general practitioner for this case?
Answer:
The competences of general practicioner for this case is 3B (KKI, 2012).
Synthesis:
General practitioner be able to make a clinical diagnosis based on
physical examination and examination additional checks requested by
doctors such as lab or x-ray examination. Doctors can decide and give
preliminary therapy, and refer to a specialistrelevant (emergency case).
2.6 Conclusion
Two days old baby boy sluggish to breastfeed and a frequent “cycling”
motion on the legs due to suffering from neonatal seizure with history of
neonatal asphyxia.
Asphyxia
Hypoxia
Seizure
Cycling
motion