Marxism in the Engiash Poetry of

1930s and the Marathi Poetry

 -365-

Chapter- V

Marxism in the English Poetry of 1930s and the

Marathi Poetry after 1947: A Comparison
The study of comparative literature involves the study of more than
"one literature. Alongwith the study of more than one literature, it also deals
with the study of two different regions, countries, cultures, peoples, their
traditions and conventions. The study of comparative literature which
basically involves two or more than two traditions of literature is not an
easy process. In fact, it is a very difficult process in which one is expected
to master one more tradition of another literature. There has always been
some kind of limitation in the knowledge of language. For example, in the
act of translation, one always comes across linguistic and cultural laws that
pose a great problem. In. comparative literature, there is a shift from
particular to general and one has to study intercultural laws. Before
attempting a critical study of both the English poetiy of the 1930s and
Marathi poetry after 1947, in order to understand the influence of Marxist
philosophy on them through a comparative perspective, it is essential to
understand the genesis of this perspective that emerged as an interesting and
significant area of study in literature.

Scholars believe that the perspective of comparison may have

originated in the Aristotelian concept of 'Mimesis' or 'Imitation'. In the
opinion of the ancient Greek philosopher, Aristotle, man is imitative by
nature. However, here we have to bear one thing in mind that the emergence
of comparative literature has been possible because of the two world wars.
It emerged out of the desire of mutuality and the Latin background. The
spirit of enlightenment gave birth to Euro-centdc cosmopolitanism.
However, the 20th century Polish novelist, Joseph Conrad broke the Euro­
centric idea of cosmopolitanism. Conrad was the first writer to attack
imperialism. The cosmopolitan view of mankind and the militant aggressive
nationalism got subdued and helped the rise of comparative literature.

In his Ph'JD. thesis, Mr. T.N. Kolekar elucidates the concept of

comparative literature, its origin and development as follows :

' The comparative study attempts to transcend the

narrow confines of a single area of subject and searches for
similarities between texts and authors from different cultural
backgrounds. The term 'comparative literature' means the

* % f* « 1
 V

• -366 -

study of an individual -writer's work or book from a purely

comparative perspective. (Kolekar : 2007, 195).

The term 'Comparative Literature' refers to a methodology. In French

language,' the term means 'literatures compared'. The “Victorian critic,
Mathew Arnold, opines that the first sign of a cultured man is that he should
know one more work of a literature of ah alien country. The American and
the British people look upon Euro-American literature as a world
Literature.' The famous Indian Nobel laureate Mr. Rabindranath Tagore has
explained his concept of the 'Vishwa Sahitya' or 'World-literature.' He holds
the credit of being a pioneer in defining the world literature. The
establishment of the first department for the study of the world literature
took place in the year 1910. In Kolkatta, the course in Comparative
Literature was at first introduced at Jadhavpur University in 1957. After the
Second World War, the development of the comparative literature got
accelerated. When Europe got disintegrated, people became aware of the
comparative literature. They displayed their sense of nostalgia for the unity
of Latin literature.

In India, the comparative literature departments got developed

through the department of English. For the study of the Elizabethan drama,
it became necessary for the researcher to take into account the influence of
the Senecan drama on the Elizabethan drama. Even the study of the
Restoration drama becomes more fruitful, when it is studied with the help of
Molliere and other French dramatists. The poetry of Chaucer, the British
poet, can be compared with the work of Boccacio. We can also study the
plays of Shakespeare in the context of the Latin, French, Italian and Spanish
influences. We can study the play of Marathi playwright Mr. Vijay
Tendulkar 'Wasana Chakra' with reference to the influence of 'A Street Car
Named Desire' a play by the American playwright, Tennessee Williams.
The poems of T.B. Thombare alias Balkavi can be studied in comparison
with the Nature poems of William Wordsworth or P.B. Shelley. In a sense,
we come across a number of examples which attract, a comparatist for the
study of comparative literature.

The act of reading is' always a prejudiced act. We read a text and
approach the text within prejudices and preconceived priorities. And hence,
the act of reading is a process moving across such notions, associations and
affinities. It became a comprehensive process of reading multiple literatures
and cultures as well. It means that the act of reading is in fact a process of
exploring the world literature. We can see this in T.S. Eliot's poem The
Waste Land' in which he refers to 'The Bhagvad Gita'. In the 'Cantos' by
* Ezra Pound, there is a reference to some Chinese work of art or Pound’s
 -367-

fascination for Tagore's work and James Joyce's interest in Koran reflect the
scope of comparative literature. Those can be termed as examples of the
world literature. He remarks that the whole mankind is an heir to the legacy
of poetic creation. In 1827, Goethe advised the writers to broaden their
concept of literature and go beyond the borderlines of national literature.

Mr. T.N. Kolekar expresses a view that the comparative literature has
already established itself as a discipline of study in the later part of the
twentieth centuiy. Afterwards, attempts have been made to theorize and
define the nature and importance of comparative literature. In this regard,
the comment of A. Owen Aldrige, a famous comparatist and theorist, is
worth mentioning here. He says:

A comparative literature does not compare national

literature in the sense ofsetting one against the other instead it
provides a method of broadening one's perspective in the
approach to single works of literature a way of looking beyond
the narrow boundaries of national frontiers in order to discern
trends and movements in various national cultures and to see
the relations between literature and other spheres of human
activity. [Aldrige : 1969,1 ]

We see a mixed response to the phenomenon of comparative

literature because some scholars denied acknowledging its independent
status whereas some scholars justified its substantial contribution to
literature by broadening its horizons of perspectives. Mr. Charles Mills
Gayley, an American comparatist regarded literature as a common
institutional expression of humanity. The scholar like Francois Fost
expressed a view that comparative literature reflects an overall view of the
world literature by presenting a vision of the cultural and humanistic
universe. The comparatist looks upon art as a medium through which the
cosmic unity gets reflected. The comparatist makes the reader aware of that
fundamental unity by enhancing it.

The area of comparative literature was further strengthened by

political ideas. The American President Woodrow Wilson's vision of 'One
World' also contributed to it However, after 1970s, we find that the focus
from the comparative literature was shifted elsewhere. During this period,
most of die scholars were influenced by the new critical theories such as
structuralism, post-structuralism, feminism, deconstruction, semiology, etc.
 - 368-

Besides die influence of these theories, scholars and critics also continued
to debate the desirability and justifiability of comparative literature. When
the new critical theories aroused a serious challenge to the comparative
literature in die western world, it started to flourish in the eastern countries
like India, China, Japan and Taiwan. In India, the nationalist movement
aroused a proper intellectual and artistic mood. This mood influenced all the
regional literatures of the country. It created spirits and perspective for the
comparative study of great and good works of literatures from the
neighbouring states within India. The comparative study of literature was a
voluntary choice in European countries. However, in the Indian context, it
was the cultural and artistic necessity of its multicultural and multilingual
consciousness.

A famous Indian critic Ganesh Devi remarks that the preference for
the comparative study of literature in India was but an offshoot of the
emergence of the modem nationalistic temper in India. Ahead to this, one
Indian critic, Swapan Mujumdar gives his view that the desire for a
nationalist literature facilitated the rise of the comparative literature in India
and the other third world countries in the Asian and African continents.

Regarding the objectives of comparative literature, an Indian scholar,

Sisir Kumar Das opines that the main objective of comparative literature is
to visualize the total literary activities of man as a single universe. He
further states that eventhough it is difficult to achieve this goal, one should
at least start with two literatures. He also argues that the comparatist should
try to go beyond the comparison between the two literatures and focus on as
many literatures as possible. The 19th century German Philosopher, Goethe
advised the ordinary reader to look beyond the narrow linguistic and
geographical boundaries of his nation and take pleasure of the excellent
works of art created by mankind. Goethe expected from the reader the
comprehension of the subtleties and complexities of relationships between
literatures in comprehensive manners and appreciated those woks.

In the comparative study of the English literature and Marathi

literature, the linguistic and cultural nuances in their relationship would be
of utmost importance. Such a close study of the relationship between the
two literatures helps the comparatist to identify trends and movements in
various national cultures. In this regard, Sisir Kumar Day lays down some
guiding principles for the comparatist. He says :

A comparatist is hardly in a position to exercise any authentic

judgement in choosing their best works in all the languages of
the world. He is concerned mainly with the relationships, the .
 - 369-

semblances and differences between national literatures, with .

their convergences and divergences. He has to work within a
rigorous framework to avoid subjective predilections and
personal preferences. But at the same time, he wants to arrive
at a certain general understanding of literary activities of man
and to help create a universal poetics. (Das : 1988,199-200).

The analysis of the poetry of the English poets of the thirties like
W.HAuden, Stephen Spender and Cecil Day Lewis reveals that their poetry
of the 30s is obviously the poetry of socialistic nature. At the same time, the
analysis of the 'poetry of the Marathi poets after 1947 like Mr. Vinda
Karandikar, Sharachandra Muktibodha and Narayan Surve shows that their
poetry is Marxist in attitude. Since die. poetry of these English and Marathi
poets has the basis of philosophy of Marxism, we can compare their poetry
and see the similarities and differences in it by keeping in view the
following objectives:

1) To know the similarities and differences in the social, political and

economic background of the social poetry of these two groups of
poets.
2) To know the similarities and differences in the major influences on
the poetry of these poets of different writers, thinkers' and
philosophers.
3) To know the similarities and differences in the major influences of
the biographical aspects on their poetry.
4) To study the influence of Marxism on the different types of poetry
composed by these two groups of poets.
5) To find out common Marxist aspects existing in the poetry of these
two groups of poets.
6) To find out different Marxist aspects in the poetry of these two
groups of poets.
7) To study the causes of the continuation of the composition of poetry
of Marxist nature by some of the poets till the end of their poetic
career.
8) To study the deviation of these poets from Marxist philosophy and
the causes of their deviation and attraction to some other
philosophies.
 -370-

Similarities in the social poetry of the English and

Marathi Poets:

1) The element of war in the English and Marathi poetry of

Marxist nature:
1 The poetry of Auden, Spender and Lewis is remarkable for its war
background. The First World War, the Spanish Civil War, the threat of War
to Western Europe from Japan, the Paris Peace Settlement, the rise of
Fascist and Nazi dictatorship, the outbreak of the Second World War etc.
figure prominently in the social poetry of the 30s. All these poets looked
upon war as a.thing of destruction on the one hand and as a necessary thing
for destroying the evil simultaneously. Like the poetry of these poets, we
see the reflection of the concept of war in the Marxist Marathi poetry of
Karandikar, Muktibodh and Surve. In their poetry, the effects of the First
World War, the Second World War, the Imperialist rule in India, the Indian
Freedom Movement, Quit India Movement, the Goan freedom movement,
Indo-Chinese War, Indo-Pak, Indo-Bangla Wars, United Maharashtra
Movement etc, are closely depicted. Like the poets of the Auden Group,
these Marathi poets also looked upon war as a thing of destruction as well
as a necessary thing for establishing liberty, equality and brotherhood in
society. No doubt, all these English and Marathi poets disliked the
bloodshed and mass killing in the war but they also welcomed the changes
brought by war. They found that the war of the communists against fascists
and Nazi powers was but necessary for overthrowing inhumane and brutal
power. The Marathi poets also welcomed the concept of war for fighting
against die British, Portuguese, Chinese, Pakistanis and Bangladeshis for
maintaining national identity of the country. Their nationalistic'and patriotic
spirit enabled them to compose poetry in which they admired the Indian
freedom fighters who have spilt blood and sacrificed their lives for attaining
freedom for the country. In short, the concept of war has been used by all
these English and Marathi poets in the interest of their own nation, own
continent etc. All these poets wanted to overthrow unjust rule and establish
the rule of democracy or communism. They thought of the bigger mass
society and its welfare all the time whenever they thought of the concept of
war. In a sense, 'war' is a common subject in the social poetry of all these
poets.

H) The influence of contemporary social, political and

economic conditions on the English Poetry of 1930s and
Marathi Poetry after 1947:
The English poetry of the 30s is composed under the influence of social,
political and economic conditions during the period between the First
World War and the outbreak of the Second World War. In the 20s, we come
across tremendous political upheaval and social change. The First World
 -371 -

War that took place during 1914-1918 made a greater impact on the politics,
society and economy of England as well as Europe. After the First World
War many political and war events took place. These included the rise of
Fascist and Nazi dictatorships in Italy and Germany. In 1922, Mussolini, a
dictator, seized the power of Italy. Like Mussolini, the German dictator,
Adolph Hitler captured the power of Germany. Hitler's policy of
rearmament put Germany back to work. However, the same policy became
a threat to the peace and liberty of Europe. With the help of these two
dictatorships, Franco had started a civil war against the Popular Front
government (elected democratically) in Spain. It was necessary to save the
Spanish government. The communists during this period had taken an
increasingly selfish part in continuing this war. Here, it was necessaiy to
save the Western man from a global disaster by political method. For this
purpose, the Spanish' War was the last chance to do so. During this period,
there was also the threat of war from Japan to Western Europe. The
outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 also contributed to the growth
of political turmoil and disturbance in Europe during the period of 1930. In
short, anarchical political condition, depression and large-scale
unemployment became the legacy of the First World War.

Alongwith the horrible political condition in Europe in the 30s, we

also see many social changes. The year 1929 is recognized as die year of
world economic depression. In 1926, the General strike which took place in
England paralyzed the financial condition of England. The economic events
like the crashing of the Wall Street stock market and similar financial chaos
resulted in the world economic depression. This state of depression was
continued in the 1930s. It affected adversely industries and factories.
Thousands of people had no work. The problem of mass unemployment
came up. The jobless and unemployed men in the industrial districts of
Britain started to suffer from starvation. In short, the contemporary horrible
political, social and economic conditions in Europe influenced the literature
produced during this period and the English poetry of the 30s was no
exception to it. The First World War, the contemporary political and
economic situation, the problems of mass unemployment and mass
starvation as well as the impending threat of the Second World War made
deep influence on the consciousness of Auden, Spender, Mac Neice and
Lewis. They were shocked to see the menace of war. to the blossoming and
creative promise of their generation. Spender and his friends were unable to
ignore the inter-war years of crisis. They felt the need of social action. They
had a belief that the cure for society as well as art, lay in social change and
it would remove the causes of the decay. This awareness made these poets
to concentrate their attention on one of the major issues of the time and that
was art in relation to external events. These poets also believed that during
the period of crisis, the world of action and the world of imagination
penetrate into each other and then the emergence of a new consciousness
 -372-

takes place. W.H. Auden acknowledged the role of the artist in changing the
challenging situation with utmost vigour. He was of the view that the
exercise of aesthetic faculty must be well timed with social demands. He
further expected that a writer should write with a firm sense of moral
commitment. In the words of Mr. Pandey, "The artist with his call for
resistance to every thing that undermines the principle of corporate
civilized living, can play a highly effective role in such situations." (Pandey
: 1982,16).

Thus, the poets of the ’Auden group' observed closely the ills of the
contemporary society. This observation prepared the ground for their poetic
movement of the thirties. The poets associated with this movement were
socially conscious young writers who shared in common a profound sense
of crisis, saw the future with serious alarm and felt an urgent need for
action. When Auden published his collection of poems 'Poems', Spender
published his 'Poems' in 1933 and Lewis published his 'Transitional Poems'.
The names of these three poets were linked together by writers and they
were called as 'the pioneers of a new literary movement'. (Pandey : 1982,
16)

These three poets had one common background. At first, they were
public school boys and they were brought up in a liberal atmosphere.
Secondly, they were close observers of the anomalies and contradictions of
contemporary social, political and economic life. Thirdly, all of them took
the stance of rebellion against their own class. All of them took this task as
their- responsibility. Their sense of social awareness had conditioned the
formulation of the poetic theory of these poets. The picture of the misery of
contemporary man made these poets to think of poetry as a vent for private
dreams. They expected that poetry should help them to get over the sense of
social chaos. They wanted poetry for expressing the destiny of man in
political terms. In short, the involvement of these poets with social and
political situation enabled them to adopt communism as a means of solving
problems.

The poetry of Muktibodh and Karandikar written after 1947

and the poetry of N.S. Surve in the 1960s are composed under the influence
of contemporary political, social and economic conditions. Like the poetry
of Auden, Spender and Lewis, the poetry of the Marxist thought composed
by these three Marathi poets is a close reflection of the picture of the
contemporary social, political and economic life.

The political events like the Second World War1, the Quit
India Movement, the Indian Freedom Movement, the United Maharashtra
Movement, the Indo-Chinese War, war with Pakistan in 1965 and 1971, the
Indo-Bangla War, the establishment of democratic republic in India etc.
 - 373-

have made a greater impact on the poetry of Karandikar, Muktibodh and

Surve. In their poetry of socialistic nature, we come across the reflection of
contemporary political situation. Consequently these poets focussed real
political life in their poetry. Like the political happenings, these poets also
closely depicted contemporary social and economic happenings in their
poetry of Marxist attitude. The events like the effect of industrialization
and urbanization, the division of population in villages and cities between
the rich and the poor classes, the problems of middle class society, the bad
living and working conditions in factories, the child-labourers and women-
labourers and their exploitation by the capitalists, the deception 'of the
customer at the hands of the traders' community, the under-treatment.given
to the down-trodden, the existence of class-system, caste-system, mass
starvation and mass unemployment, the horrible drought situation in West
Bengal, the horror aroused by the Second World War, etc. had formed a
closer part of the contemporary social and economic life in Indian society
after 1947. The wretched condition of contemporary society and its
economic and cultural problems have been closely depicted in the poetry of
these three Marathi poets. Like the social poetry of the English poets of the
30s, the social poetry of these three Marathi poets also focusses the
contemporary political, social and economic conditions in India. In their
attempt of throwing light on these conditions in their poetry, they are much
akin to the social poets of England of the 30s. Like the English Marxist
poets of the 30s, these Marathi poets also depicted realistic picture of the
contemporary society in their poetry.

Ill) The influence of the Marxist thinkers and philosophers

on the English poets of the 30s and the Marathi poets after
1947:
The English poets like Auden, Spender and Lewis were
influenced by the philosophy of Marxism, Communism or Socialism
advocated by different Marxist thinkers and philosophers. All these poets
were influenced by Karl Marx and Engels and their philosophy of
communism. The communistic programme of these thinkers, their political
and economic views, their call for resurgence etc. had appealed to these
poets. For example, eventhough the questions of surplus value, methods of
production and the distribution of profits became too technical for making
good material in his poetry. Auden was attracted by Marx's thought of
revolution. Even Marx's theory of alienation of man had attracted him too
much. In his social poetry of the 30s, Auden emphasizes the necessity of
action and change and this emphasis directly comes as a result of Marxist
philosophy of freedom of will. He viewed Marxism as a conception of
human nature than a political theory. Like Auden, Spender was also deeply
influenced by the philosophers like Marx and Engels. In his poetry, Spender
searches for the causes of exploitation, injustice and disparity in society.
 -374-

Due to his involvement in human sorrow, he gives a passionate call for

rebellion to the young men of his time. He wishes for the end of the old
social order in his poetry. He also dreams of a new ideal world. In short, all
these things show the influence of Karl Marx and Engels on Spender. Even
the influence of Auden on Spender reveals his leaning towards Marxism.
Like Auden and Spender, Lewis was also influenced by the philosophy of
Marx and Engels. For Lewis Marxism offered a system of ideas which he
could use in his poetry. Lewis was so highly influenced by 'the theories of
Marx and Engels that he did not find any difference between Marxism and
the contemporary social, political and economic life. The ideas like the
Marxist dialectic, the revolutionary proletariat, surplus value etc. appealed
him. Even Lewis's conversion to communism, his membership of the
Communist Party, his observation of Marxist theory as a practical solution
to an epidemic of social misery etc. reveal his close association with Marx
and Engels.

The social poetry of the Marathi poets - Muktibodh,

Karandikar and Surve is composed under the influence of Marxist
philosophy propagated by Marx and Engels, Lenin, Tolstoy, Gorky,
Mahatma Gandhi and many other thinkers and philosophers. Their social
poetry is also composed under the influence of different socialistic and
communistic movements that have taken place in India since 1925, i.e. after
the establishment of the Communist Party of India. Muktibodh looks upon
himself as a Marxist because he was influenced by the philosophy of Marx
and Engels. His experience of contemporary social, political and economic
life in India was no more different from that of Marx and Engels. His close
observation of the problems of the contemporary society, the master-worker
conflict and the exploitation of workers, etc. had brought him much close to
the communistic philosophy of these thinkers. Due to the influence of these
thinkers upon him, he deserves to be called as a'close follower of Marx and
Engels .We see the influence of Marxtst philosophy on him when he says,
"If someone calls me a Marxist, I agree with him." (Muktibodh : 1997,47).

Like Muktibodh, Vinda Karandikar was also influenced by different

philosophies of Western thinkers. Among those western thinkers, Karl Marx
was one of the major influences on Karandikar. At an early stage of his
period of youth, he was influenced by Marx and his philosophy. The
. pitiable picture of the contemporary society had pulled him towards Marx's
philosophy of communism. The conflict between the workers and owners
classes, the pitiable condition of woman in the contemporary society, the
exploitation of labourers and workers by the landlords and industrialists, the
inequality between men and women aroused by capitalism the corruption,
injustice upon common men etc. all these issues enabled Karandikar to
look upon the theory of Marx and Engels as a solution. The following
remark of Karandikar is good enough to see the influence of Marx and
 -375-

Engels on Karandikar; "Marxism made a deep influence on my attitude

towards social and political problems." (Rajadhyaksha : 2006, 6). In
Surve's poetry from 1962 to 1995, we see the influence of the philosophy of
Marx, Engels, Lenin, Tolstoy and Mao-Tse-Tung. Surve often thought that
the men belonging to workers and labourers* classes (artists, sculptors,
warriors etc.), the down-trodden class, the poor and the under-privileged
classes are powerful and fit for changing the present condition of their
society. He was under the impression that the philosophy of Marx and
Engels will bring a ray of hope in their lives. Under the influence of these
Marxist thinkers, Surve composed most of his poems of socialistic nature.
In the following remark of Surve, the influence of Marx and Engels is
discernible, "Marx and Engels are eminent thinkers of our age. They
cultivate our scientific attitude. They answer the questions aroused in our
life," (Jah.: 1995, 56-57)

Thus, our observation of die English poets - Auden, Spender and

Lewis and die Marathi poets - Muktibodh, Karandikar and Surve reveals
that all these poets were highly influenced by Marx, Engels and many other
Eastern and Western Marxist thinkers and the social poetry of all these
English and Marathi poets is but a result of the influence of the Marxist
philosophy.

IV) The impact of Russian Revolution and other Communist

movements on the English and Marathi Poets :
During the period of their youth Auden, Spender and Lews were
fascinated towards Russian communism. Due to the Bolshevik Revolution
of 1917, Russia was totally isolated from the Western World. The example
of ’iron curtain* is worth mentioning here to display reality. After the
Russian Revolution in 1917, a new experiment with social life had started in
Russia. When the crisis in the capitalist world became worse, the swing
towards Marxian started to grow. The words like 'communist',-
'communism*, ‘revolutionary’ and ‘revolution’ as well as the name of Lenin
came to be discussed on a large scale in the periodicals like *New
Signatures' and *New Country'.The periodical *New Country' which was
political in tone appealed the intellectuals to work with the English
Communist Party. It also stressed the need for a revolution for protecting
whatever is valuable in British life. Michael Roberts, the publisher of the
*New Signatures' also opined that for English people it was necessary to
prepare the, way of an English Lenin. The social poets like Lewis and
Spender wrote articles in which they emphasized the necessity of Marxism
as a cure of the maladies afflicting England. The acceptance of Communism
by these three young poets during this period, represented their pull towards
Russian Revolution. They looked upon Marxism as a panacea for
contemporary social, political and economic ills. They closely followed the
statement of Louis Mac Niece in their adoption of Marxist philosophy : "a
 -376-

poet should be able-bodied,.fond of talking, a reader of the news papers,

capable of pity and laughter, informed in economics, appreciative of
women, involved in personal relationships, actively interested in politics,
susceptible to physical impressions." (Eamshaw: 1968,211).

Here, we have to bear one important thing in mind that the poets like
Auden, Spender and Lewis were deeply disturbed by the troubles of their
times. Their troubles included - the great economic depression, the First
World War, the Spanish Civil War, the rise of Nazism and Fascism, the
problems of mass unemployment, mass starvation, the General strike in
England, industrial decay and poverty and the imminence of the Second
World War. They wanted to find out solution to all these social, political
and economic problems of their times. Resultantly, they were fascinated
towards Marxism and their poetry became Marxist poetry. The
establishment of Communist Party of India in 1925 took place under the
influence of the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was because of the Russian
Revolution, the wind of communism started to blow powerfully in India and
among other Asian countries. The establishment of the communist party in
India, the publication of the Magazine 'Kranti', toe rise of toe middle class,
toe different movements of workers' class in India etc. were aroused under
toe influence of toe Bolshevik Revolution of 1917.

Different workers' unions in India started to struggle for their rights

under toe influence of this revolution. In short, toe Russian Revolution has
played an important role in shaping different activities of communistic
nature in India. In toe Marxist Marathi poetry of Muktibodh , Karandikar
and Surve, we come across toe influence of different communistic
movements which have taken place in and outside India. The struggle of
toe workers' movement against capitalists, toe rise of toe middle class, toe
agitation of farmers and land-labourers against toe landlords, different
movements resulted out of caste-conflicts, class-conflict in India, toe
revolutionary movements for Indian Freedom, different social reformation
movements undertaken under toe leadership of King Shahu, Dr. Ambedkar,
Mahatma Gandhi in toe pre-Independence era etc. have deeply influenced
toe poetry of Muktibodh . Under toe influence of these different
movements of socialistic nature, Muktibodh gave a call for action and
regeneration of society. Under toe impact of these movements, he aspired
for toe liberation and welfare of toe whole mankind. His socialistic poetry
represents toe influence of these communistic movements and activities,
which have humanistic approach.

In his days of studentship, Karandikar was also attracted to toe

philosophy of communism. In some of toe Marxist poems in Swedganga,
we see toe influence of Russian Communist Party's philosophy through toe
Communist Party of India's philosophy. In his youth, he had also become a
 -377-

member of the Communist Party. He had participate! in different

demonstrations, morchas of workers' Union. His participation in the, 'Quit
India Movement in 1942, Hyderabad Freedom Movement and United
Maharashtra Movement also developed his Marxist attitude. His poetry
composed under the influence of different communistic and nationalistic
movements represents his Marxist attitude.

Narayan Surve himself was a textile mill worker. He has participated

actively in different demonstrations, workers, agitations, strikes of Mumbai
Tactile Mill workers. He was brought up in the family of a worker. At an
early age, he had started to work for Communist Party. The different
communistic movements in Russia, China, Cuba had appealed him strongly.
The Indian Freedom movement, the United Maharashtra demonstration,
Goa Freedom Movement, the different movements undertaken by Indian
farmers, labourers and industrial workers' Union etc. influenced his poetry.
It was under the effect of these communistic, nationalist movements Surve
composed his poetry of social awareness.

Thus, here we find that the Russian Revolution, the Chinese

Revolution, the Communist movements in England and in India had deeply
influenced the social poetry of both groups of poets. Like the English poets-
Auden, Spender and Lewis, the Marathi poets - Muktibodh, Karandikar
and Surve have also depicted the influence of these communistic
movements and revolution in their social poetry.

V) The reflection of mass society in the social poetiy of the

English and Marathi poets :

The middle class society assumes central place in the social poetry of
English poets of the 1930s and Marathi poets after 1947. Due to
industrialization, the rise of workers' class took place. The industrial
workers' class belonged to the middle and lower sections of society, hi most
of the Marxist poems of Auden, Spender and Lewis, we come across the
picture of the contemporary industrial society. In this industrial society; we
see workers, technicians, labourers, sweepers, clerks, office boys etc. The
workers' class was a part of society at large which included so many other
types of workers. It was a mass society in which we can include all other
types of employees, labourers, fishermen, security guards, insurance, bank
employees, tea-stallers, hawkers, vendors, coolies etc. hi the poetry of
Auden, we see the depiction of lower-middle class people, their horrible
working and living conditions, their exploitation by the established classes
in the society. Like Auden, Spender also throws light on the life of
workers, labourers, unemployed youths and their different socio-economic
problems. He throws light on the exploitation of these workers by the
capitalist class in his poetry of the 30s. Lewis also throws light on the
 -378-

different types of working class men in his poetry of the 30s, The sacrifice
of the soldiers for their nation, the struggle of workers for their rights, the
problems of contemporary middle and lower class society etc. have become
an indispensable part of the poetry of Lewis. Since all these three poets
were deeply influenced by the horrible condition of common man in the
industrialized society, they closely depicted the it in their poetry of the 30s.

In his Marxist poetry, Muktibodh has focussed mass society. In fact,

Muktibodh's Marxist poetry is a result of his social awareness. It was out
of this awareness, Muktibodh had observed the life of the working class.
He saw the middle class society and its problems. He observed closely the
workers, farmers, labourers, soldiers, land-labourers putting in their hard
work. Muktibodh felt intensely the exploitation and injustice done upon the
working class men. He also saw the wretched condition of the poor, the
neglected, the oppressed, the downtrodden in the contemporary society.
This sense of social awareness exists in the poetry of Karandikar as well.
Karandikar observed the problems of all workers, farmers, soldiers,
servants, clerks, small traders, hawkers, farm-labourers, landless labourers,
men working in different works of construction etc. He found that the poor,
the wretched, the underprivileged, the downtrodden etc. were exploited at
the hands of the well-established class. In fact, Karandikar's Marxist poetry
is a severe attack on the social, political and economic ills in the modem
society. His suggestion to the middle class to fight against the established
class represents his leaning towards the welfare of the mass society. In
Surve's Marxist poetry there is a close-handed picture of mass society.
Surve himself was a worker and as a worker he had observed closely the
problems of the working class men of his time. He had seen the sufferings
of women labourers and child labourers also. He had also seen die
difficulties faced by the coolies, poster-workers, farmers, landless labourers,
prostitutes, hawkers, the down-hodden, toe poor, toe neglected ones in toe
Indian society. In his poetry, he criticised severely toe exploitation of
common man in toe contemporary society on class, caste, colour, race,
region, religion and on many other grounds. His, poetry was but a live
picture of contemporary society.

In short, in toe social poetry of these English and Marathi poets, toe
mass society occupies a prominent place. The depiction of different types of
workers belonging to mass society in toe poetry of these poets, undoubtedly
shows their attachment with toe mass society.

VI) The portrayal of different Marxist aspects in the social

poetry of the English poets and Marathi poets:
In toe social poetry of toe 1930s and Marathi poetry after 1947, we
come across a good portrayal of different aspects of Marxism. The elements
of revolution, class struggle, call for action, toe straggle against injustice,
 -379-

oppression and. exploitation, anticipation for liberty, equality and fraternity,

hatred for fascist, Nazi and imperialistic powers and love for the rule of the
proletariat, the welfare of mass society, the sense of humanism towards the
poor, the wretched, the neglected and the under-privileged and many other
features are closely depicted in the poetry of the English poets of the 1930s
and Marathi poets after 1947. Auden, Spender, Lewis, Muktibodh,
Karandikar and Surve have anticipated for the liberation of mankind from
the clutches of the old, unjust social, political and economic system. All
these poets have rejected inequality in their contemporary society. Thus, we
can say that the social poetry of these poets is a good portrayal of different
Marxist aspects.

The English and Marathi poets and their deviation from

Marxist philosophy

Auden, Spender and Day Lewis looked upon Marxism as a panacea for
social ills. However, very soon all these poets experienced disillusionment
with this philosophy when they found that their dream of establishing a
world of justice, liberty, equality and fraternity was shattered. After his
migration to America, Auden was attracted to Christianity. He was
influenced by the Christian philosophy of Kierkegaard, the defender of
Christianity. His quest for the idea led him to accept the philosophy of
religious faith. Like Auden, Spender and Lewis also realized the futility of
Marxist philosophy after the Spanish Civil War. They accepted the fact that
Marxist philosophy could not be the whole ideology for solving the
problems of the world. In fact, the events like the outbreak of the Second
World War, the threatening ©mergence of fascism put these poets in a state
of confusion and hence they were deviated from Marxist philosophy.
Spender turned towards introspection and personal values. He welcomed
the profession of editorship. Lewis also accepted criticism as a new
profession after his disillusionment with Marxism. In fact, all these poets
belonging to the Auden group composed verses of Marxist outlook in the
thirties. All of them tried to combine Marxist philosophy with Fraud's
psychology. They were social poets reacting to the conditions of their time.
However, in the words of B.Prasad, "The fascination with communism did
not last long and each went his own way, Auden into Christianity, Spender
into editorship, Mac Niece into broadcasting, and Day Lewis into Criticism
" (Prasad : 2001,185)
/

While at Indore, Muktibodh came into contact with some Marxist

thinkers and he started the study of Marxist philosophy. Upto the year 1943-
44, he made his Marxist attitude more concrete and stable. However, in the
last phase of his poetic career, Muktibodh tried to amalgamate Marxism
with Hinduism. In his house, there was religious atmosphere. No doubt, he
 -380-

had already good knowledge of Hindu spiritualism. After retirement, he

concentrated more on Hindu spiritualism. He became more interested in the
worship of Hindu Gods. He would be happy in carrying out religious
activities. It showed clearly his deviation from Marxist philosophy. Around
the year 1955, we see a good deal of absence of the philosophy of Marxism
in Karandikar's poetry also. Throughout his poetic career, Karandikar did
not restrict himself to any particular philosophy of life. And hence we
cannot anticipate only the reflection of Marxist philosophy wholly in
Karandikar’s poetry. He had expressed loyalty towards many a philosophy.
He composed poetry of different types in different periods. Had he followed
only the Marxist philosophy in his whole poetry, he would not have
composed poetry of all other types reflecting other different ideologies. He
loved Marx as well as Freud. He also loved scientists like Einstein. Ahead
to that, in some of his poems, we see him as a worshipper of God. He also
liked the Saints Dnyaneshwar and Tukaram. In his collections of poems like
‘Jatak’ we see a greater absence of Marxist philosophy. Because die thought
of nervousness and helplessness expressed in some of the poems in that
collection represents the absence of Marxism. It means, just as we see a
deeper influence of Marxist philosophy in the early collections like
Swedganga, Mridgandh and Dhrupad, we do not see the equal influence of
Marxism on the poems from the later collection of poems, ft shows a
gradual deviation of Karandikar from Marxism. Thus, like Auden, Spender
and Lewis, the Marathi poets Muktibodh and Karandikar also got deviated
from Marxist philosophy in their later life.

In this way, the social poetry of these English and Marathi poets
displays a good number of common things. It is on the ground of the
depiction of these common things in their social poetry, the poetry of the
English and Marathi poets has established a fabric of closer relationship
with each other. Eventhough the poetry of both of these groups of poets
hails from different countries and continents, there are many common
things that we come across in their poetry. The socialistic or Marxist
attitude of all these poets Iras brought together to these poets of different
regions, different periods. No doubt, the social poetry of these poets has a
number of things displaying the common base of their social poetry.
However, it does not mean that their poetry is totally similar. Since these
poets belong to two different countries and two different times, it is possible
that they must have influenced by different tendencies of theft times. in this
regard, we find some differences between the social poetry of the English
and Marathi poets. They are listed below:

i) The different sorio-econonasc and pitkal background of

the English and Marathi social poetry;
in the poetry of Auden, Spender and Lewis there is a deep impact of
the social, political and economic events of the 1920s. These include the
 -381 -

First World War, the World economic depression, the Spanish Civil War,
the hatred for Fascist and Nazi dictatorship and appeal towards
communism. In their social poetry all these English poets have portrayed
evils in the contemporary English Society. The problems of industrial
workers and the conflict between the capitalist class and the workers' class
has also been closely depicted in their poetry.

In their poetry, the Marathi poets like Muktibodh, Karandikar and Surve
have concentrated mainly on the social, political and economic conditions
after 1947. These poets have taken into account their own country and for
different problems after 1947. The contemporary social, political and
economic conditions existing in India aroused a sense of social awareness in
these poets and under the influence of these conditions they composed their
poetry of socialist attitude. Many national and continental developments
made deep impact upon these poets. The world level events like the Second
World War, imperialism and colonialism influenced the poetry of these
poets. The events like the Quit India Movement, Indian Independence,
Indian Freedom Movement, Indo-Pak War, Indo-Bangla War, Indo-China
War, Goan Freedom Movement, United Maharashtra demonstration ■ and
many other national events influenced their poetry. The problems in
contemporary Indian society had become a thing of deep concern for the
Marathi poets and they depicted these problems in their poetry.

In short, the English poets concentrated mostly on the contemporary

situation in England and Europe of the 1930s whereas the Marathi poets
concentrated on the contemporary situation in India and Asia mostly after
1947. With regard to the portrayal of the contemporary social, political and.
economic conditions differently at national and continental levels we find
their social poetry different.

2) The reflection of class-conflict in the English poetiy of

the 30s and class,caste,regional conflicts in the Marathi
Marxist poetry after 1947:
In the English poetry of the 1930s, we find the portrayal of the
middle class society. The English poets took into account mainly the
industrial workers' class and the difficulties faced by it in the capitalistic
system. They throw light on the conflict between the capitalists and the
workers. Besides the industrial working class, these poets also highlighted
die problems of soldiers caused due to war. The soldiers, employees,
workers and labourers became victims of die policies of the ruling power of
their nation.

In Marathi poetiy, we come across the portrayal of not only class-

system, but also caste-system. In Indian situation, we have different
 -382 -

problems in case of class, caste, colour, region and religion and Marathi
poets concentrated on the problems aroused due to these conflicts. Marathi
poetry not only depicts the- struggle between the capitalists and workers,
owners and labourers but it also focusses on the conflict between the upper
caste and lower caste in Indian situation. They highlighted the pains and
suffering caused to the downtrodden due to the under-treatment given to
diem by die well-established classes in India. They also highlighted the
conflict between the landlords and landless labourers, between the middle-
class and lower class society in Indian situation. In the social poetry of these
Marathi poets, we come across the problems of casteism, regionalism,
regional language, regional culture etc. In short, the English poets have
concentrated on class-conflict whereas the Marathi poets have concentrated
on class conflict, caste conflict, regional conflict and religious conflict
existing in Indian situation.

3) The deviation of the English poets from Marxism and the

non-deviation of Snrve from it:

Although we see die deviation of social poets of 1930s from Marxist

philosophy in the later phase of their life in Surve’s poetry we do not see
such deviation from Marxist philosophy. Surve is a staunch believer in
Marxist philosophy. His attitude towards It is that of an optimistic poet He
had deep faith in the power and strength of workers unity. He looks upon
the worker as an architect of bright future. In most of his social poems
composed between 1960 and 1995, Surve has displayed his loyalty towards
Marxist philosophy. He hopes for the betterment of mankind under the
influence of Marxist philosophy only. No doubt, he is a veteran Marxist
poet who has depicted Marxist philosophy in Ms poetry throughout bis
poetic career. Unlike the English poets of the 1930s or the Marathi poets
like Muktibodh and Karandikar, he never deviated from Marxist
philosophy.

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• Amiya Dev and Sisirkumar Das (ed.). 1988 . Comparative

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Publishers.
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• Birjadish Prasad . Revised Edition,2001 . A Short History ofEnglish

Poetry. New Delhi: Macmillan India Limited.

• H.G. Eamshaw. 1968 . Modern Writers : A Guide to Twentieth

Century Literature in the English Language . Edinburgh &

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Malwaat . Girgaon, Mumbai: Mauj Prakashan Grih.

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Marathi Dalit Poets, Namdeo Dhasal and Daya Pawa

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o Vijaya Rajadhyaksha . First Edition, 2006 .Bahupedi Vinda, Vol.

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