Physical

Part I Physical Sciences
1
Universe
• Universe is the ‘whole Cosmic System of
Matter and Energy of which Earth is a part’
• Universe ‘includes Planets, Moons, Minor
Planets, Stars, Galaxies, Contents of
Intergalactic Space, and all Matter and Energy’
• Earliest Scientific Models ‘placed the Earth at
the Center of the Universe’
2
Universe
• Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) ‘developed
the Heliocentric Model which placed the Sun
at the Center of the Solar System’
• The Solar System, in which Earth is, ‘is located
in the Milky Way Galaxy’
• Universe ‘has neither an Edge nor a Center’
• Universe is ‘continuously expanding at an
increasing rate’
3
Universe
• Majority of Mass in the Universe ‘appears to
exist in an unknown form called Dark Matter’
• According to the Big Bang Model, ‘the
Universe expanded from an extremely Dense
and Hot State and continues to expand’
• Big Bang Theory states ‘that amount of Energy
and Matter becomes less Dense as Space
expands’
4
Universe
• ‘Observable Universe is about 28 Billion
Parsecs or 91 Billion Light Years in Diameter’
5
Galaxy
• ‘Any of the Systems of Stars and Interstellar
Matter that make up the Universe is known as
a Galaxy’
• Galaxies are ‘assemblages of Stars &
Interstellar Matter’
• Some Galaxies are so enormous ‘that they
contain 100s of Billions of Stars’
• Galaxies ‘usually exist in Clusters’
6
Galaxy
• Some ‘Clusters are so large that they measure
100s of Millions of Light Years across’
• Galaxies are ‘extremely varied not only in
Structure but also in the amount of Activity
observed’
• Some Galaxies ‘are the sites of Vigorous Star
Formations’
• Others ‘are Dormant, having long ago ceased
to form New Stars’
7
Galaxy
• The ‘most conspicuous activity in Galaxies
occurs in their Nuclei’
• Evidence suggests ‘that they contain Black
Holes’
• At least ‘2 Trillion Galaxies exist in the
Observable Universe’
• Most of the ‘Galaxies are 1000 to 100000
Parsecs in Diameter’
8
Galaxy
• A ‘Parsec is equal to about 3.26 Light Years
(31 Trillion KMs or 19 Trillion Miles) in length’
9
Galaxy
• Types of Galaxies:
1. Ellipticals:
• Elliptical Galaxies ‘are shaped like a Spheroid, or
Elongated Sphere’
• In the Sky, ‘we can only see 2 of their 3 Dimensions’
• This type of Galaxy ‘looks like Elliptical or Oval Shaped
Disk’
• Elliptical Galaxies are ‘given a classification that
corresponds to their Elongation from a Perfect Circle’
10
Galaxy
1. Ellipticals:
• The ‘larger the Number, the more Elliptical the Galaxy
is’
• ‘E0 is Perfectly Circular, while a classification of E7 is
Very Flattened’
• Elliptical Galaxies ‘have no particular Axis of Rotation’
11
Elliptical Galaxy - Sombrero
12
Galaxy
2. Spirals:
• Spiral Galaxies ‘have 3 Main Components’:
I. Bulge:
» Bulge is a ‘Spherical Structure found in the Center
of the Galaxy’
II. Disk:
» This ‘mostly contains Older Stars’
» Disk is ‘made up of Dust, Gas, and Younger Stars’
» Disk ‘forms Arm Structures’
13
Galaxy
2. Spirals:
• Spiral Galaxies have 3 Main Components:
III. Halo:
» Halo of a Galaxy ‘is a Loose, Spherical Structure,
located around the Bulge and some of the Disk’
• Our own Galaxy, the Milky Way, ‘is a large Disk
Shaped Spiral Galaxy about 30 Kilo Parsecs in
Diameter and 1 Kilo Parsec thick’
• It ‘contains about 200 Billion Stars’
14
Spiral Galaxy – Milky Way
15
Galaxy
3. Irregular:
• Irregular Galaxies are ‘highly Irregular Assemblages of
Luminous Areas’
• They ‘have neither noticeable Symmetry nor an
obvious Central Nucleus’
• They are ‘generally Bluer in color’
• An ‘extremely small number of Irregular Galaxies are
Red and have a smooth shape’
16
Irregular Galaxy
17
Light Year
• Light Year is ‘a Unit of Length used to express
Astronomical Distances’
• A Light Year is ‘the Distance that Light travels
in Vacuum in 1 Julian Year’ (365.25 Days)
• Light Year is ‘most often used when expressing
Distances to Stars & Galaxies’
• ‘Unit used in professional Astrometry is
Parsec’ when expressing Distance
18
Light Year
• One Parsec equals:
– ‘3.26 Light Years, which is equivalent to 3.09 ×
1013 KM’
• In the Milky Way Galaxy, ‘distances to remote
Stars are measured in terms of Kilo Parsecs’ (1
Kilo Parsec = 1000 Parsecs)
• When dealing with other Galaxies or Clusters
of Galaxies, ‘the convenient unit is Mega
Parsec’ (1 Mega Parsec = 1000000 Parsecs)
19
Light Year
• The distance to the closest Galaxy, Andromeda
Galaxy, ‘is about 0.76 Mega Parsec’
20
Light Year – Andromeda Galaxy
21
Solar System
• Solar System is ‘the Gravitationally-Bound
System comprising the Sun and the Objects
that orbit it’
• Of those Objects that orbit the Sun directly,
‘the largest 8 are the Planets’
• Solar System was ‘formed 4.6 Billion Years
ago’
22
Solar System
• ‘4 Smaller Inner Planets include’:
1. ‘Mercury’
2. ‘Venus’
3. ‘Earth’
4. ‘Mars’
• These 4 Inner Planets are ‘Terrestrial Planets
as they are primarily composed of Rock and
Metal’
23
Solar System
• The ‘4 Outer Planets are Giant Planets’, being
substantially more massive than the
Terrestrials ones
• The ‘4 Outer Planets include’:
1. ‘Jupiter’
2. ‘Saturn’
3. ‘Uranus’
4. ‘Neptune’
24
Solar System
• ‘Jupiter & Saturn are Gas Giants’, being
composed mainly of Hydrogen and Helium
• ‘Uranus and Neptune are Ice Giants’
• Solar System ‘also contains smaller Objects’
• The ‘Asteroid Belt lies between the orbits of
Mars and Jupiter’
• It ‘contains Objects composed of Rock and
Metal’, just like the Planets
25
Solar System
• Sun ‘contains 99.86% of the Solar System’s
known Mass’ and dominates it Gravitationally
• Sun’s 4 Largest Orbiting Bodies, the Giant
Planets, ‘account for 99% of the remaining
Mass’
• Of that remaining Mass, ‘Jupiter and Saturn
together comprise more than 90%’
• ‘Distance from Earth to the Sun is 1
Astronomical Unit’ (AU)
26
Solar System
• ‘One AU is 150,000,000 KMs’
• ‘Radius of the Sun is 0.0047 AU’ (700,000 km)
27
Solar System
28
Sun
• Sun is ‘a Star around which Earth and the
Other Components of the Solar System
revolve’
• It is the ‘Dominant Body of the System’
• Sun is the ‘source of an enormous amount of
Energy’
• Sun ‘provides Earth with Light and Heat,
necessary to support Life’
29
Sun
• Sun’s ‘Diameter is about 109 Times that of
Earth’
• Sun’s ‘Mass is about 330000 Times that of
Earth’
• ‘Surface Temperature of the Sun is about 5778
Kelvins’
• The ‘Temperature at the Core of the Sun is at
least 15,000,000 Kelvins’
30
Sun
• ‘1 Kelvin equals exactly 0.01°C’
• Sun ‘is a Middle Aged Star’
• It ‘has not changed dramatically for more than
4 Billion Years’ and will remain fairly stable for
more than another 5 Billion Years
• After Hydrogen Fusion in its Core has stopped,
‘Sun will undergo severe changes and become
a Red Giant’
31
Sun
• The ‘Temperature of the Sun’s Surface is so
high that no Solid or Liquid can exist there’
• ‘Constituent Materials of the Sun are
predominantly Gaseous Atoms’
32
Earth
• Earth is the ‘3rd Planet from the Sun and the
5th in the Solar System in terms of Size and
Mass’
• The ‘most distinguishing aspect of Earth it is
the only place known to harbor Life’
• Earth is ‘also the Densest Planet in the Solar
System & the largest of the Solar System’s 4
Terrestrial Planets’
33
Earth
• Earth ‘formed about 4.54 Billion Years ago’
• During 1 Orbit around the Sun, ‘Earth rotates
about its axis 365.25 Times’, creating 365.26
Solar Days
• Earth’s ‘Axis of Rotation is tilted 23.4° away
from the Perpendicular of its Orbital Plane’,
producing Seasonal Variations on the Planet’s
Surface within a period of 1 Tropical Year
(365.24 Solar Days)
34
Earth
• ‘Moon is the Earth’s only Permanent Natural
Satellite’
• The ‘Gravitational Interaction between Earth
& Moon causes’:
– ‘Ocean Tides’
– ‘Stabilizes the orientation of Earth’s Rotational
Axis’
– ‘Slows Earth’s Rotational Rate’
35
Earth
• Earth’s ‘Rotation period is 23 Hours 56
Minutes & 4 Seconds’
• Earth ‘orbits the Sun at an Average Distance of
about 150 Million KMs’
• ‘Atmosphere is 78% Nitrogen & 21% Oxygen’
• ‘71% of Earth is covered by Water’
• ‘Equatorial Diameter is 12756 KMs’
36
Astronomical Systems of Unit
• Astronomical Systems of Unit ‘is a System of
Measurement developed for use in
Astronomy’
• It was ‘adopted by the International
Astronomical Union’ (IAU) in 1976
• Astronomical System of Units ‘is a Tri-
Dimensional System’
37
• Astronomical System of Units:
1. Astronomical Unit of Time:
• Astronomical Unit of Time ‘is the Day, defined as
86400 seconds or 365.25 Days’
• Symbol ‘D’ is used in Astronomy to refer to this Unit
2. Astronomical Unit of Mass:
• Astronomical Unit of Mass ‘is equal to the Mass of
the Sun’
• Symbol ‘M’ is used to refer to this Unit
38
• Astronomical System of Units:
3. Astronomical Unit of Length:
• Astronomical Unit of Length ‘is defined as exactly
149,597,870,700 Meters’
• Speed of Light, in IAU, ‘is the defined value
of 299,792,458 M/S’
39
Eclipses
• Eclipse ‘is an Astronomical Event that occurs
when an Astronomical Object is temporarily
Obscured, either by passing into the Shadow
of another Body or by having another Body
pass between it and the Viewer’
• There are ‘2 Types of Eclipses’:
I. Solar Eclipse
II. Lunar Eclipse
40
Eclipses
• Regions of the Eclipse:
1. Umbra:
• Umbra ‘is the Region within which the Object
completely covers the Light Source’
2. Antumbra:
• Antumbra ‘extends beyond the tip of the Umbra’,
within which the ‘Object is completely in front of the
Light Source but too small to completely cover it’
3. Penumbra:
• Penumbra ‘is the Region within which the Object is
only partially in front of the Light Source’
41
Eclipses – Regions
42
Eclipses
• Types of Eclipses:
1. Solar Eclipse:
• Solar Eclipse ‘occurs when the Moon gets between
Earth and the Sun’
• The ‘Moon casts a Shadow over Earth’
• Solar Eclipse ‘can only take place at the phase of New
Moon’
• There are ‘3 Types of Solar Eclipses’:
43
Eclipses
1. Solar Eclipse:
I. Total Solar Eclipse:
» ‘New Moon can completely blot out the Disk of
the Sun’
» During a Total Solar Eclipse, ‘the Moon casts its
Umbra upon Earth’s Surface’
» ‘Totality may last as long as 7 Minutes 31 Seconds’
44
Eclipses
1. Solar Eclipse:
II. Partial Solar Eclipse:
» ‘Occurs when only the Penumbra (the Partial
Shadow) passes over You’
» ‘Part of the Sun always remains in view’ during
the Eclipse
45
Eclipses
1. Solar Eclipse:
III. Annular Eclipse:
» Annular Eclipse ‘is a rare sight’
» Annular Eclipse ‘is a Sub-Species of a Partial
Eclipse’
» The ‘maximum duration for an Annular Eclipse is
12 Minutes 30 Seconds’
» In Annular Solar Eclipse, the ‘Moon appears to
pass centrally across the Sun’
46
Eclipses
1. Solar Eclipse:
III. Annular Eclipse:
» The ‘Moon is too small to cover the Disk of the
Sun completely’
47
Eclipses – Types of Solar Eclipses
48
Eclipses
2. Lunar Eclipse:
• Lunar Eclipse occurs ‘when the Moon passes through
the Earth’s shadow’
• This happens only during a full Moon, ‘when the
Moon is on the far side of the Earth from the Sun’
• Lunar Eclipse ‘lasts longer for around 30 Minutes’
49
Eclipses
2. Lunar Eclipse:
• There are ‘3 Types of Lunar Eclipses’ that occur:
I. Penumbral Lunar Eclipse:
» When the ‘Moon crosses only the Earth’s
Penumbra’
II. Partial Lunar Eclipse:
» When the ‘Moon crosses partially into the Earth’s
Umbra’
50
Eclipses
2. Lunar Eclipse:
• There are ‘3 Types of Lunar Eclipses’ that occur:
III. Total Lunar Eclipse:
» When the ‘Moon crosses entirely into the Earth’s
Umbra’
51
Eclipses – Types of Lunar Eclipses
52
Rotation & Revolution
• Earth ‘revolves around the Sun’
• Earth also ‘rotates on its own Axis’
• Earth has ‘2 Motions’:
I. ‘Rotation’
II. ‘Revolution’
53
• Rotation:
– Earth’s Rotation ‘is the rotation of the Planet Earth
around its own Axis’
– Earth ‘rotates from the West towards East’
– Earth ‘turns Counter Clockwise’
– Earth ‘rotates once in about 24 Hours’
54
• Revolution:
– Earth ‘experiences changing Seasons’
– ‘Axis of the Earth is tilted slightly’
– This ‘causes part of the Earth to lean towards the
Sun, while Part of it is hidden either beneath the
Earth, or above it’
– This ‘causes different Parts of the Earth’s Surface
to receive a different amount of Sunlight and
Heat’
55
• Revolution:
– As the Earth moves around its Orbit, ‘the Portion
leaning towards the Sun changes’
– This ‘results in the Earth having different Seasons
at different Parts of the Year
56
57
Weather
• Weather is the ‘state of the Atmosphere at
any given point in Time’
• Most ‘Weather Phenomena occur in the
Troposphere’
• Weather ‘refers to the Day-to-Day
Temperature and Precipitation Activity’
• Climate is ‘Statistics of Atmospheric
Conditions over longer Periods of Time’
58
Weather
• Weather ‘includes Variables such as’:
I. ‘Temperature’
II. ‘Pressure’
III. ‘Circulation’
IV. ‘Precipitation’
V. ‘Humidity’
59
Weather
• Variables of Weather:
1. Air Pressure:
• Air is a ‘combination of Molecules that fly around and
bump into each other’
• Just like Billiard Balls, ‘Air Molecules bump into each
other and push each other around’
• ‘When all these Molecules act together, we start to
feel these Air Molecules’
• Air Molecules ‘also have Weight’
60
Weather
1. Air Pressure:
• ‘Between the Weight of the Air pushing down and the
collisions between Molecules, Air Pressure is
generated’
61
Weather
2. Temperature:
• When Air Molecules ‘move faster & bump into each
other harder and more often, this happens when the
Temperature of Air has increased’
• ‘Warm Air Molecules have more Energy’, so they
move faster and create more Pressure
• ‘Cold Air has less Energy and exerts less Pressure’ on
its surroundings
62
Weather
2. Temperature:
• Temperature ‘makes Air Molecules rise up when they
are hot and brings them down when the Molecules
get colder’
63
Weather
3. Circulation:
• Circulation ‘is the large scale Movement of Air by
which Thermal Energy is redistributed on the Surface
of the Earth’
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Weather
4. Precipitation:
• Precipitation is ‘any Product of the Condensation of
Atmospheric Water Vapor that falls because of
Gravity’
• Main ‘forms of Precipitation include Drizzle, Rain,
Sleet, Snow, and Hail’
• Precipitation is a ‘major component of the Water
Cycle’
• It is ‘responsible for depositing the Fresh Water on
the Planet’
65
Weather
4. Precipitation:
• ‘Globally Averaged Annual Precipitation is 990mm but
over Land it is only 715mm’
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Weather
5. Humidity:
• Humidity is the ‘amount of Water Vapor in the Air’
• Humidity ‘indicates the likelihood of Precipitation,
Dew, or Fog’
• Higher Humidity Level ‘reduces the effectiveness of
Sweating in Cooling the Body by reducing the Rate of
Evaporation’ of moisture from the Skin
67
Earthquake
• Earthquake is ‘any sudden shaking of the
Ground caused by the passage of Seismic
Waves through Earth’s Rocks’
• Earthquakes can also be defined as:
– ‘Any sudden Release of Energy in the Earth’s Crust
that creates Seismic Waves’
• The ‘pent up Energy is suddenly released
when Masses of Rock straining against one
another suddenly Fracture and Slip’
68
Earthquake
• Earthquakes ‘occur most often along Geologic
Faults’, Narrow Zones where Rock Masses
move in relation to one another
• Major ‘Fault Lines of the World are located at
the edges of the Tectonic Plates’ that make up
Earth’s Crust
• ‘Seismic Activity of an Area ‘refers to the
Frequency, Type, and Size of Earthquakes
experienced over a Period of Time’
69
Earthquake
• Seismology is ‘the Study which involves the
Scientific Study of all aspects of Earthquakes’
• Earthquakes are ‘measured using
Observations from Seismometers or
Seismographs’
• About ‘50000 Earthquakes large enough to be
noticed without the Aid of Instruments occur
Annually’
70
Earthquake
• Of these 50000, ‘approximately 100 are of
sufficient size to produce substantial damage’,
if their Centers are near Areas of Habitation
71
Earthquake
• Types of Earthquakes:
1. Foreshock Earthquake:
• Foreshock ‘occurs before the Main Shock’
• Foreshock has been ‘detected for about 40% of all
Moderate to Large Earthquakes’, and ‘about 70% for
events of over a magnitude of >7.0 on the Richter
Scale’
• Foreshocks can ‘occur from a matter of Minutes to
Days or even longer’ before the Main Shock
72
Earthquake
1. Foreshock Earthquake:
• E.g. 2002 Sumatra Earthquake is regarded as a
Foreshock of the 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake with
a delay of more than 2 Years between the 2 Events
73
Earthquake
2. Aftershock Earthquake:
• Aftershock is ‘a smaller Earthquake that occurs after a
large Earthquake’ in the same area of the Main Shock
• If an ‘Aftershock is larger than the Main Shock, the
Aftershock is redesignated as the Main Shock’ and
the original Main Shock is redesignated as a
Foreshock
• Aftershocks are ‘formed as the Crust around the
displaced Fault Plane adjusts to the effects of the
Main Shock’
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Earthquake
3. Interplate Earthquake:
• Interplate Earthquake is an ‘Earthquake that occurs at
the Boundary between 2 Tectonic Plates’
• This type of Earthquake ‘accounts for more than 90%
of the Total Seismic Energy released’ around the
World
• If ‘1 Plate is trying to move past the Other, they will
be locked until sufficient stress builds up to cause the
Plates to slip relative to each Other’
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Earthquake
4. Intraplate Earthquake:
• Intraplate Earthquake ‘occurs in the interior of a
Tectonic Plate’
• Intraplate Earthquakes ‘do not occur near Plate
Boundaries but along Faults in the normally stable
Interior of Plates’
• Intraplate Earthquakes ‘are not well understood’
• ‘Hazards associated with them are difficult to
quantify’ even up till now
76
Earthquake
5. Mega Thrust Earthquake:
• Mega Thrust Earthquakes ‘occur at Subduction Zones
at destructive Convergent Plate Boundaries’
• Subduction Zones are ‘Zones where 1 Tectonic Plate is
forced underneath Another’
• These are the ‘Planet’s most powerful Earthquakes
with a magnitude that can exceed 9.0 on a Richter
Scale’
• ‘No other Type of known Terrestrial Source of
Tectonic activity has produced Earthquakes of this
Scale and Magnitude’ 77
Earthquake
6. Tsunami Earthquakes:
• Tsunami Earthquake ‘triggers a Tsunami of a
Magnitude that is very much larger than the
Magnitude of the Earthquake’
• The ‘release of Seismic Energy occurs at Long Periods’
• A Tsunami Earthquake ‘can be defined as an Undersea
Earthquake’
78
Earthquake
• Cause of Earthquakes:
1. Faults:
• Faults ‘result from the actions of Plate Tectonic
Forces’
• Largest Faults are ‘formed at the Boundaries between
the Plates, especially at the Subduction Zones’
• ‘Energy release associated with rapid Movement on
Active Faults is the cause of most Earthquakes’
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Earthquake
2. Volcanism:
• Earthquakes are ‘induced by the Movement of
Magma’
• ‘Movement of Magma results in Pressure Changes in
the Rocks around where the Magma has experienced
stress’
• At some point, ‘the Rocks may break or move, causing
Earthquakes’
80
Earthquake
3. Induced Seismicity:
• Minor Earthquakes and Tremors that are ‘caused by
Human Activity that alters the Stresses and Strains on
the Earth’s Crust’
• Some Energy Technologies ‘that inject or extract Fluid
from the Earth, such as Oil and Gas Extraction and
Geothermal Energy Development, have been found
to cause Seismic Events’
• ‘Mining leaves voids that generally alter the Balance
of Forces in the Rock’ many times causing Rock Bursts
81
Earthquake
3. Induced Seismicity:
• These Voids ‘may collapse producing Seismic Waves
and in some cases, reactivate existing Faults’ causing
minor Earthquakes
• This has ‘become the most common cause of
generating Earthquakes through Induced Seismicity’
• ‘Large Scale Fossil Fuel Extraction’ can also generate
Earthquakes
82
Earthquake
• Characteristics of Earthquakes:
1. Epicenter:
• Epicenter is ‘the point on the Earth’s Surface that is
directly above the Hypocenter or Focus’
• In most Cases, ‘it is the area of the greatest damage’
2. Hypocenter:
• Hypocenter is the ‘point of origin of an Earthquake’
• It is ‘also known as the Focus’
83
Earthquake
• Characteristics of Earthquakes:
3. Seismic Wave:
• Seismic Waves are ‘Waves of Energy that travel
through the Earth’s Layers, and are a result of
Earthquakes, Volcanic Eruptions, Magma Movements,
large Landslides, and large Man-Made Explosions’
• ‘Velocity of Seismic Waves tends to increase with
Depth’ and ranges from approximately 2 to 8 KM/S in
the Earth’s Crust to up to 13 km/s in the Deep Mantle
84
Earthquake
85
Volcanoes
• Volcanoes are:
– ‘Vent in the Crust of the Earth from which issue
eruptions of Molten Rock, Hot Rock Fragments,
and Hot Gases’
• Volcanoes are ‘closely associated with Plate
Tectonic Activity’
• Most Volcanoes ‘occur on the Margins of the
Tectonic Plates’
86
Volcanoes
• Volcanoes are ‘generally found where Tectonic
Plates are either Diverging or Converging’
• ‘Study of Volcanoes and their Products is
known as Volcanology’
• Volcanism ‘provides Beautiful Scenery, Fertile
Soils, Valuable Mineral Deposits, and Geo-
Thermal Energy’
87
Volcanoes
• ‘Pacific Ring of Fire has Volcanoes caused by
Convergent Tectonic Plates coming together’
• Erupting Volcanoes ‘can pose many hazards,
not only in the immediate vicinity of the
eruption but to far flung Areas’ as well
88
Volcanoes – Pacific Ring of Fire
89
Volcanoes
• Types of Volcanoes:
1. Active Volcanoes:
• Scientists ‘consider a Volcano Active if it has erupted
in the last 10000 Years’
• Many of Earth’s Volcanoes ‘have erupted dozens of
Times in the past few 1000 Years’ but are not
currently showing Signs of Eruption
• The ‘most Active Volcanoes are situated on the Pacific
Ring of Fire’
90
Volcanoes
2. Extinct:
• Volcanoes that Scientists ‘consider unlikely to erupt
again because the Volcano no longer has a Magma
Supply in them are considered Extinct’
• Some Volcanologists ‘refer to Extinct Volcanoes as
Inactive’
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Volcanoes
3. Dormant:
• Volcanoes ‘may remain Dormant for a long period of
Time’
• ‘Mount Vesuvius was described by Roman writers as
having been covered with Gardens and Vineyards
before its eruption of 79AD’ which destroyed the
Town of Pompeii
92
Volcanoes
93
Tsunami
• Tsunami is ‘a Tidal Wave which is caused by a
Submarine Earthquake or by the Eruption of a
Volcano in the Deep Seas’
• After an Earthquake or other generating
impulse occurs, ‘a Train of Progressive
Oscillatory Waves is sent great Distances over
the Ocean Surface in ever Widening Circles’
94
Tsunami
• It is ‘similar in movement like the Waves
produced by a Pebble falling into a Shallow
Pool’
• In Deep Waters, a ‘Tsunami can travel as fast
as 800 KM/H’
• The ‘Wavelength of the Waves is enormous,
about 100 to 200 KMs’
• On the other hand, ‘the Wave Amplitudes are
very small, only about 1 to 2 Feet’
95
Tsunami
• ‘Waves’ Periods (Lengths of Time for
Successive Crests or Troughs to pass a single
point) are very long’, varying from 5 Minutes
to more than 1 Hour
• These long Periods, coupled with the
Extremely Low Steepness of the Waves,
‘enables Tsunamis to be completely obscured
in Deep Water by Normal Wind Waves and
Swell’
96
Tsunami
• As the Waves approach the Coast of a
Continent, ‘friction with the rising Sea Bottom
reduces the Velocity of the Waves’
• As the ‘Velocity lessens, the Wavelengths
become shortened and the Wave Amplitudes
increase’
• Coastal Waters ‘may rise as high as 30 Meters’
97
Tsunami
• ‘Earthquakes, Volcanic Eruptions and other
Underwater Explosions (including Detonations
of Underwater Nuclear Devices), Landslides,
Meteorite Impacts, and other Disturbances’
above or below Water all have the potential to
generate a Tsunami
• Tsunami is ‘generated by the displacement of
large amounts of Water’
98
Tsunami
• ‘2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami was amongst the
Deadliest Natural Disasters in Human History
with at least 230000 People killed in 14
Countries bordering Indian Ocean’
99
Tsunami
100
Floods
• Flood is ‘a High Water Stage in which Water
overflows its Natural or Artificial Banks onto
normally Dry Land’
• A Flood ‘is an overflow of Water that
submerges Land’
• Floods ‘can be caused by even Rivers
inundating its Floodplain’
• Floods ‘occur at irregular intervals and vary in
Size, Duration, and the Affected Area’
101
Floods
• Causes of Floods:
1. Rains:
• Every time there are more Rains than the Drainage
System can take, ‘there is a higher probability of
Flooding taking place’
• Sometimes, ‘there can be Heavy Rains for a very short
period of Time that result in Floods’
• At other Times, ‘there may be Light Rain for many
Days’ and that can also result in Floods
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Floods
2. River Overflows:
• Rivers ‘can overflow their Banks to cause Flooding’
• This ‘happens when there is more Water Upstream
than usual’
• As Water flows Downstream to the adjacent Low
Lying Areas, ‘there is a Burst and Water gets into the
Dry Lands resulting in Floods’
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Floods
3. Strong Winds in Coastal Areas:
• ‘Sea Water can be carried by Massive Winds and
Hurricanes onto Dry Coastal Lands’ and cause
Flooding
• Sometimes, ‘this is made worse if the Winds carry
Rains with themselves too’
• Sometimes, ‘Water from the Sea, resulting from a
Tsunami, can flow Inlands and cause Massive
Damage’
104
Floods
4. Ruptured Dams/Levees:
• ‘Too much Water held up in the Dam’ can cause it to
break and overflow the Area
• ‘Excess Water can also be intentionally released from
the Dam’ to prevent it from breaking and that can
also cause Flooding
105
Floods
5. Melting of Snow:
• In many Cold Regions, ‘Heavy Snowfall over the
Winters usually stays frozen for sometime’
• There are ‘also Mountains that have Snow & Ice’ on
top of them
• Sometimes, ‘the Ice suddenly melts when the
Temperature rises’, resulting in Massive Movement of
Water into places that are usually Dry
• This is ‘usually called a Snowmelt Flood’
106
Floods
6. Flash Floods:
• Flash Floods ‘occur within a very short time’
• They are ‘usually a result of Heavy Rain, Dam Break,
or Snow Melt’
• Sometimes, ‘Intense Rainfall from slow moving
Thunderstorms can cause it’
• Flash Floods ‘are very destructive and can be fatal’, as
People are usually taken by surprise
• There is ‘usually no Warning and the impact can be
very swift and devastating’
107
Floods
• Effects of Flooding:
1. Short Term Effects:
• Include:
– ‘Loss of Life’
– ‘Damage to Buildings and other Properties/Structures’
• Floods ‘frequently damage Power Transmission
Systems and Power Generation Plants’
• ‘Damage to Roads and Transport Infrastructure’
makes it difficult to mobilize aid
108
Floods
• Effects of Flooding:
2. Long Term Effects:
• ‘Economic Hardships due to a temporary decline in
Industry/Tourism, Rebuilding Costs, or Food
Shortages’ leading to Price Increases & General
Hardships
• Flooding ‘can lead to Chronically Wet Houses’, which
are linked to Respiratory Problems and other
Illnesses, along with losing Property Values forever
109
Floods
• Benefits of Floods:
1. Flood Waters ‘recharge Ground Water’
2. Flood Waters ‘make Soil more Fertile and
increases Nutrients in the Soils’
3. Flood Waters ‘provide much needed Water
Resources in Arid and Semi-Arid Regions where
Precipitation can be very unevenly distributed’
4. Flood Waters ‘kill Pests in the Farming Lands’
5. Fish ‘make use of Floods to reach New Habitats’
110
Floods
• Benefits of Floods:
6. Floods ‘spread Nutrients to Lakes and Rivers’,
which leads to increased Biomass and improved
Fisheries for a few Years
7. ‘Bird Populations may also profit from the boost
in Food Production’ caused by Flooding
111
Avalanches
• Avalanche ‘is a Mass of Material moving
rapidly down a Slope’
• Avalanches ‘are triggered when Material on a
Slope breaks loose from its surroundings’
• This ‘Material then quickly collects and carries
additional Material down the Slope’
112
Avalanches
• Various ‘Kinds of Avalanches take place which
include’:
I. Rock Avalanches:
• ‘Consist of Large Segments of Shattered Rock’
II. Ice Avalanches:
• ‘Occur in the Vicinity of a Glacier’
III. Debris Avalanches:
• ‘Contain a variety of Unconsolidated Materials’
(Loose Stones and Soil)
113
Avalanches
• Most Avalanches ‘occur spontaneously during
Storms under increased load due to Snowfall’
• The ‘2nd main cause of Natural Avalanches is
the Metamorphic Changes that take place’ in
the Snowpack
• These Metamorphic Changes ‘include the
melting of Ice due to Solar Radiation which
weaken the Base’ and leads to an Avalanche
114
Avalanches
• ‘Other Natural Causes of Avalanches’ include:
– ‘Rain’
– ‘Earthquakes’
– ‘Rock Fall’
– ‘Ice Fall’
• Avalanches ‘can also be triggered through
Artificial Ways’ which include:
– ‘Skiers’
– ‘Snowmobiles’
– ‘Controlled Explosives’ 115
Avalanches
116
Cyclones
• Cyclones are:
– ‘Any large System of Winds that circulates about a
Centre of Low Atmospheric Pressure in a Counter
Clockwise Direction, North of the Equator and in a
Clockwise Direction to the South of the Equator’
• The Low Pressure Center ‘is also referred to as
the Eye of the Storm’
• Cyclones ‘are all about where they occur and
what their Location is’
117
Cyclones
• If the ‘Storm occurs in the Atlantic Ocean and
Northeast Pacific, it’s called a Hurricane’
• If the ‘exact same type of Storm occurs in the
Northwest Pacific, it is known as a Typhoon’
• If we find those ‘same storms in the South
Pacific and Indian Ocean, they are known as
Tropical Cyclones’
118
Cyclones
119
Cyclones
120
Cyclones
• Types of Cyclones:
1. Tropical Cyclones:
• These are Cyclones ‘that occur over Tropical Ocean
Regions’
• ‘Hurricanes and Typhoons’ are actually Types of
Tropical Cyclones
• They ‘have different names so that it’s clear where
that Storm is occurring’
• ‘Hurricanes are found in the Atlantic and Northeast
Pacific’
121
Cyclones
• ‘Typhoons are found in the Northwest Pacific’
• If one hears about a Tropical Cyclone, ‘it should be
assumed that it’s occurring in the South Pacific or
Indian Ocean’
• Tropical Cyclones are ‘categorized based on their
Wind Speeds’
• Their ‘Categories range from 1-5’
122
Cyclones
• ‘Category increases with Intensity and Wind Speed’
• A ‘Category 1 Cyclone is the weakest, with Wind
Speeds of 74-95 Miles/H’
• A ‘Category 5 Cyclone is extremely dangerous and has
the potential to cause major damage’
• Category 5 Cyclones ‘have Wind Speeds of 155
Miles/H and above’
123
Cyclones
2. Middle Latitude Cyclone:
• ‘Low Pressure Areas drive the Weather over much of
the Earth’
• Middle Latitude Cyclones or Extra-Tropical Cyclones
‘are capable of producing anything from Cloudiness
and Mild Showers to Heavy Gales, Thunderstorms,
Blizzards, and Tornadoes’
• These ‘Types of Cyclones are defined as Large Scale
Low Pressure Weather Systems that occur in the
Middle Latitudes of the Earth’
124
Cyclones
2. Middle Latitude Cyclone:
• In contrast with Tropical Cyclones, ‘Middle Latitude
Cyclones produce rapid changes in Temperature’
125
Cyclones
3. Tornadoes:
• Tornado ‘is a violently Rotating Column of Air that
spins while in contact with both the Surface of the
Earth and a Cumulonimbus Cloud’
• Tornadoes ‘occur most often in association with
Thunderstorms during the Spring and Summer in the
Mid-Latitudes of both Northern and Southern
Hemispheres’
126
Cyclones
3. Tornadoes:
• These ‘Whirling Atmospheric Vortices can generate
the strongest Winds known on Earth’
• Wind Speeds ‘in the range of 500 KM/H have been
recorded’
• Tornadoes are ‘also referred to as Twisters,
Whirlwinds, or Cyclones’
127
Cyclones
128
Drought
• Drought ‘is the lack or insufficiency of Rain for
an extended Period that causes a considerable
Hydrologic Imbalance’
• These ‘Hydrological Imbalances cause’:
– ‘Water Shortages’
– ‘Crop Damage’
– ‘Stream Flow Reduction’
– ‘Depletion Of Groundwater And Soil Moisture’
129
Drought
• Droughts ‘occur when Evaporation and
Transpiration exceed Precipitation’ for a
considerable period of Time
130
Drought
• Types of Drought:
1. Permanent Drought:
• Permanent Droughts ‘characterizes the Driest
Climates’
• ‘Sparse Vegetation adapts to Aridity’
• ‘Agriculture is impossible without continuous
Irrigation’
131
Drought
2. Seasonal Drought:
• Seasonal Drought ‘occurs in Climates that have well
defined Annual Rainy and Dry Seasons’ for successful
Agriculture and Plantation
• ‘Planting must be adjusted so that the Crops develop’
during the Rainy Season
132
Drought
3. Unpredictable Drought:
• Unpredictable Drought ‘involves an Abnormal Rainfall
Failure’
• It may ‘occur almost anywhere but is most
characteristic of Humid and Sub-Humid Climates’
• Unpredictable Drought ‘is usually brief and irregular’
• It ‘affects only a relatively Small Area’
133
Drought
4. Invisible Drought:
• Invisible Drought ‘can also be recognized as a
Drought’
• In Summers, ‘when High Temperatures induce High
Rates of Evaporation and Transpiration, frequent
Showers may not supply enough Water’ to restore
the amount lost
• The result is a ‘Water Deficiency that diminishes Crop
Yields’ and leads to less availability of Water
134
Drought
• Causes of Drought:
1. Precipitation Deficiency:
• Droughts are ‘mainly caused by Low Rainfall’
• When ‘sufficient Precipitation Volumes do not reach
the Surface over a sufficient Time’, the result is a
Drought
• Drought ‘can be triggered by a High Levels of
Reflected Sunlight and above Average prevalence of
High Pressure Systems that can prevent or restrict the
Development of Thunderstorm Activity or Rainfall’
over One particular Region
135
Drought
2. Dry Season:
• The ‘Dry Season greatly increases Drought’
occurrence
• It is ‘characterized by its Low Humidity, with Watering
Holes and Rivers drying up’
• ‘Bushfires are common’ during Dry Seasons
• Periods of Warmth ‘quicken and increase Evaporation
and Transpiration from Plants’
• This ‘worsens the Drought’ conditions
136
Drought
3. Erosion & Human Activities:
• Factors such as ‘Over-Farming, excessive Irrigation,
Deforestation, and Erosion’ adversely impact the
ability of the Land to capture and hold Water
137
Drought
4. Climate Change:
• Activities resulting in Global Climate Change ‘trigger
Droughts with a substantial impact on Agriculture’
• ‘Global Warming will result in increased World
Rainfall in some Areas, along with Droughts in other
Areas’
• As a result, ‘Flooding and Erosion will increase
throughout the World’
138
Wildfire
• Wildfire ‘is also called Wild Land fire’
• Wildfire ‘is the uncontrolled Fire in a Forest,
Grassland, Brush Land, or Land sown to Crops’
• Wildfires ‘take place in an area of Combustible
Vegetation’
• Wildfires ‘can cause damage to Property and
Human Life’
• Wildfires ‘also have many Beneficial Effects on
Native Vegetation, Animals, and Ecosystems’
139
Wildfire
• Wildfire can also be classified more specifically
as a:
I. ‘Brush Fire’
II. ‘Bush Fire’
III. ‘Forest Fire’
IV. ‘Grass Fire’
V. ‘Hill Fire’
VI. ‘Vegetation Fire’
140
Wildfire
• Causes of Wildfire:
– Natural Causes:
I. ‘Lightning’
II. ‘Volcanic Eruptions’
III. ‘Sparks from Rock falls’
IV. ‘Spontaneous Ignition’
– Human Causes:
I. ‘Arson’
II. ‘Discarded Cigarettes’
III. ‘Power Line Falls’
IV. ‘Sparks from Industrial Equipment’ 141
Disaster Risk Management
• Disaster Risk Management ‘is the creation of
Plans through which Nations/Communities
reduce vulnerability to Hazards’ and cope with
Disasters in a better manner
• Disaster Management ‘does not avert or
eliminate the Threats’
• It ‘focuses on creating Plans to decrease the
effect of Disasters’
142
• Disaster Risk Management is defined as:
– ‘The combination of the Probability of an Event
and its Negative Consequences’
143
• Disaster Risk Management ‘is defined in terms
of 3 Terms’:
1. Hazard:
• A Hazard is ‘a dangerous phenomenon that may
cause Loss of Life, Injury, or other Health Impacts,
Property Damage, Loss of Livelihoods and Services,
Social and Economic Disruption, or Environmental
Damage’
144
• Disaster Risk Management ‘is defined in terms
of 3 Terms’:
2. Exposure:
• ‘People, Property, Systems, or other Elements present
in Hazard Zones’ that are thereby subject to Potential
Losses
3. Vulnerability:
• The ‘Characteristics and Circumstances of a
Community, System, or Asset that makes it
susceptible to the damaging effects of a Hazard’
145
• Stages of Disaster Risk Management:
1. Prevention & Mitigation:
• Prevention ‘focuses on preventing the Human Hazard,
primarily from potential Natural Disasters’
• ‘Not all Disasters, particularly Natural Disasters, can
be prevented’
• The ‘risk of loss of Life and Injury can be mitigated’
with good Contingency Plans
• Mitigation Measures ‘are those that Eliminate or
Reduce the Impacts and Risks of Hazards through
Measures taken before an Emergency occurs’
146
1. Prevention & Mitigation:
• Mitigation Measures ‘take different forms for
different Types of Disasters’
• They ‘may include Structural Changes’
• E.g. The installation of an Earthquake Valve to
instantly shut off the Natural Gas Supply or securing
of items inside a Building in Earthquake-Prone Areas
• In Flood-Prone Areas, ‘Houses can be built on
Poles/Stilts to lessen the effect of Floods’
147
2. Response:
• Response Phase of an Emergency ‘may commence
with Search and Rescue Operations’
• After this, ‘the focus quickly turns to fulfilling the
Basic Humanitarian needs of the affected People’
• ‘Assistance may be provided by National or
International Agencies and Organizations’
148
3. Recovery:
• Recovery Phase ‘starts after the immediate threat to
Human Life has subsided’
• Immediate goal of the Recovery Phase ‘is to bring the
affected Area back to Normalcy’ as quickly as possible
• During Reconstruction, ‘it is essential to consider the
Location or Construction Material of the Property’
according to the needs of that particular Place
149
Sources of Energy
• Energy is ‘the capacity for doing Work’
• Energy ‘exists in different Forms’ such as:
I. ‘Potential Energy’
II. ‘Kinetic Energy’
III. ‘Thermal Energy’
IV. ‘Electrical Energy’
V. ‘Chemical Energy’
VI. ‘Nuclear Energy’
150
Sources of Energy
• ‘All Forms of Energy are associated with
Motion’
• ‘Any given Body has Kinetic Energy’ if it is in
Motion
• ‘A Tensioned Device has the potential for
creating Motion’
• It ‘contains Potential Energy’
• E.g. Nuclear Energy is Potential Energy until
utilized in the Reactors
151
Sources of Energy
• There are ‘2 Sources of Energy’:
1. Renewable Sources:
• Renewable Energy is ‘Energy that comes from
Resources which are Naturally replenished’
• It ‘includes Sunlight, Wind, Rain, Tides, Waves, and
Geo-Thermal Heat’
• ‘About 16% of Global Energy Consumption presently
comes from Renewable Resources’
• Renewable Energy Resources ‘exist over wide
Geographical Areas’
152
Sources of Energy
• There are ‘2 Sources of Energy’:
2. Non-Renewable Sources:
• Non-Renewable Energy is the ‘Energy that has
Limited Sources on Earth in Quantity’
• ‘They are exhaustible’
153
Sources of Energy
• Renewable Sources of Energy:
1. Biomass Energy:
• Biomass Energy is ‘produced from Organic Material’
• It ‘come from things that once lived’
• These things can ‘include Wood Products, Dried
Vegetation, Crop Residues, Aquatic Plants, and
Garbage’
• These ‘Organic Materials used up Sun’s Energy to
make their own Food’
• They ‘stored this Energy in the form of Chemical
Energy’
154
Sources of Energy
1. Biomass Energy:
• As the ‘Plants die, the Energy is trapped in the
Residue’
• This ‘trapped Energy is released by burning’
• This ‘can be converted into Biomass Energy’
• When the ‘Plants are burnt, the Water and Carbon
Dioxide is again released back into the Atmosphere’
• Biomass Energy ‘produces large amounts of Carbon
Dioxide into the Atmosphere’
155
Sources of Energy
2. Wind Energy:
• ‘By using Large Turbines to take available Wind as the
Power to turn, the Turbine can then turn a Generator
to produce Electricity’
• ‘Moving Air (Wind) has huge amounts
of Kinetic Energy’
• This ‘can be transferred into Electrical Energy
using Wind Turbines’
• ‘Wind turns the Blades, which spin a Shaft, which
connects to a Generator, eventually producing
Electricity’ 156
Sources of Energy
2. Wind Energy:
• Wind Turbines are ‘usually sited on High Hills and
Mountain Ridges’ to take advantage of the prevailing
Winds
• ‘Total Wind Energy capacity currently installed
throughout the World is 336GW’
157
Sources of Energy
3. Hydro-Electric Energy:
• ‘Moving Water has Kinetic Energy’
• This can be ‘transferred into useful Energy in different
ways’
• ‘Hydro-Electric Power Schemes store Water high up in
Dams’
• ‘Water has Gravitational Potential Energy’ which is
released when it falls
• The ‘Force and High Pressure in the Water turns a
series of Shafts in a Generator’
158
Sources of Energy
3. Hydro-Electric Energy:
• ‘Spinning Shafts in the Generator charges Coils and
Magnets to create Electricity’, which is regulated by a
Transformer
• The ‘problems faced with Hydro-Power Energy
Sources is the aging of the Dams’
• Restoration work ‘requires enormous sums of Money
and Time to keep the Dams functioning properly’
159
Sources of Energy
4. Geo-Thermal Energy:
• Geo-Thermal Energy is the ‘Energy that is produced
from beneath the Earth’
• ‘High Temperatures are produced continuously’
inside the Earth’s Crust
• ‘Hot Rocks present below the Earth heat up the
Water that produces Steam’
• The ‘Steam is then captured and relayed to move the
Turbines’
160
Sources of Energy
• The ‘rotating Turbines then power the Generators’
• In Places with Hot Water close to Earth’s Surface,
‘Deep Wells can be drilled and Cold Water pumped
down to get Hot Water & Steam’
• The biggest disadvantage with Geo-Thermal Energy is
that ‘it can only be produced at selected Sites
throughout the World’
161
Sources of Energy
• ‘Earth’s Geo-Thermal Resources are theoretically
more than adequate to supply Humanity’s Energy
Needs’
• ‘Only a very small fraction may be profitably
exploited’ as Plants need to be set up ‘right above the
Source of Geothermal Energy’
162
Sources of Energy
163
Sources of Energy
5. Solar Energy:
• ‘Energy from the Sun’ is known as Solar Energy
• Without the Sun’s Energy, ‘there will be no Life’
• Solar Energy is ‘considered as a Source of Energy for
many Years that can be utilized for as long as the
Earth lives’
• ‘Vast Amounts of Solar Energy is freely available’
waiting to be tapped
164
Sources of Energy
5. Solar Energy:
• ‘Large Solar Panel Fields are often used in Deserts’ to
gather enough Power to charge Small Sub-Stations
• The issue with Solar Energy is that ‘while there is
plentiful amounts of Sun available, only certain
regions of the World get enough Sunlight’ long
enough to generate usable Power
• ‘Solar Cells convert Light Energy directly into Electrical
Energy’
165
Sources of Energy
5. Solar Energy:
• In these Cells, ‘there are ‘Semi-Conductors’
• ‘Solar Panels are different from Solar Cells’
• Solar Panels ‘do not generate Electricity’ directly
• They ‘heat up Water instead’
• Solar Thermal Power Plants are a ‘concentration of
the Sun’s Energy by many Panels to heat up Water
into Steam’
166
Sources of Energy
5. Solar Energy:
• The ‘Steam is then used to turn Turbines to produce
Electricity’
• ‘Over 100GW of Solar Energy is currently produced
Worldwide’
• Pakistan’s Solar Energy potential is 2.9 Million MW
167
Sources of Energy
5. Solar Energy:
168
Sources of Energy
6. Ocean/Wave Energy:
• Wave Energy is ‘produced from the Waves that are
produced in the Oceans’
• Wave Energy ‘harnesses the Kinetic Energy in the up
and down Movements of Water’ in the Ocean
• Wave Energy ‘locations are best where there are
strong Winds traveling over very long Distances’
169
Sources of Energy
• Ocean Tides are ‘caused by the Earth’s Rotation, as
well as the combined Gravitational Fields of the Earth,
Sun, and the Moon’
• Unlike in Wind Turbines, ‘the Blades in Wave Energy
Devices move a lot slower because of the High
Density of the Water’
• These ‘slow Waves carry a lot of Power’
170
Sources of Energy
• Kinetic Energy ‘from the spinning of the Blades,
caused by the Currents is tapped with the help of
some Converters inside of the Spinning Structures to
generate Electricity’
• ‘Unpredictable changes in Wave Patterns, Extreme
Tides to very Calm Waters, can cause huge Structural
Damage to the Wave Turbines’
171
Sources of Energy
7. Tidal Energy:
• Tides are ‘the Elevation and Fall of huge amounts of
Water which are caused by the different interaction
of Gravitational Forces exerted between the Moon,
the Earth, and the Sun’
• Tidal Energy ‘uses rise and fall of Tides to convert
Kinetic Energy of incoming and outgoing Tides into
Electrical Energy’
• The ‘generation of Energy through Tidal Power is
mostly prevalent in Coastal Areas
172
Sources of Energy
7. Tidal Energy:
• ‘Oceans Tidal Stream is even more powerful when
Wind Air Pressure Systems get involved’
173
Sources of Energy
• Non-Renewable Sources of Energy:
1. Fossil Fuels:
• Fossil Fuel Sources ‘burn Coal or Hydro-Carbon Fuels,
which are the remains of Decomposed Plants and
Animals’
• There are ‘3 Types of Fossil Fuels’:
I. ‘Coal’
II. ‘Petroleum’
III. ‘Natural Gas’
• Fossil Fuels ‘allow stored Energy to be recycled &
reused’
174
Sources of Energy
1. Fossil Fuels:
• Fossil Fuels ‘make up the bulk of the World’s Primary
Energy Sources’
• Fossil Fuels ‘are relatively less expensive to produce
as Technology is extensively available to extract them’
• Fossil Fuels are ‘not Environmental Friendly
• They ‘can have serious effect on Humans’ Health’
• ‘Production of Oil has peaked between 2007 and
2010’
175
Sources of Energy
1. Fossil Fuels:
• Fossil Fuels ‘are also a Source of Greenhouse Gas
Emissions’
• Fossil Fuels ‘lead to the release of Pollution into the
Atmosphere’
• Fossil Fuels ‘may only last another 65 to 100 Years’
176
Sources of Energy
2. Nuclear Energy:
• Nuclear Energy is the ‘Energy that is in the Nucleus of
an Atom’
• There is ‘enormous Energy in the Bonds that hold
Atoms’ together
• Energy ‘derived from Uranium is called Nuclear
Energy’
• ‘Power generated from a Nuclear Reaction is similar
to that of Fossil Fuels’
• They ‘all use heat to turn Turbines to generate Power’
177
Sources of Energy
2. Nuclear Energy:
• ‘Uranium Atoms can be made to Split, or Fission, to
release Heat’
• ‘Fission is the process of splitting the Uranium Atom
to form smaller Atoms’
• A ‘Kilogram of Natural Uranium produces as much
Heat as 20 Tons of Coal’
• ‘CO² Emissions from Nuclear fuel is very low’
• It is ‘even lower than the emissions from Hydro-
Electric Power’
178
Sources of Energy
2. Nuclear Energy:
• Nuclear Power Plants ‘are very expensive to build’
• They ‘also produce very Dangerous Waste in the form
of Radioactive Waste’
• The ‘amount of Waste produced is although very
small’ (about 3% of the Plant’s Waste)
• This ‘Radioactive Waste is disposed off Deep
Underground’ to keep it away from Humans and their
Daily Activities
179
Conservation of Non-Renewable
Energy
• Ways to conserve Non-Renewable Energy
Sources:
1. Lifestyle Changes:
• To prolong the availability of Non-Renewable Energy,
‘Population needs to change its way of living’
• ‘Every Human would have to play their part’ to save
the Earth’s Energy
• ‘Reliance on Fossil Fuels would have to be lessened’
• ‘Saving of Energy at Homes, Offices, and Industrial
Units’ would need to take place
180
Energy
Sources:
1. Lifestyle Changes:
• ‘Usage of Automobiles would need to be reduced’
only for necessary & long journeys
• ‘More Walking & Car Pooling’ would need to be
encouraged
181
Energy
Sources:
2. Shifting to Renewable Energy Sources:
• Governments would ‘need to implement Policies to
switch from Non-Renewable to Renewable Sources’
of Energy
• ‘Solar, Wind, Geo-Thermal, Ocean, & Hydrogen Cell
Technologies’ would need to be invested in
• ‘Networks of these Renewable Sources would have to
be established’
182
Energy
Sources:
2. Shifting to Renewable Energy Sources:
• Usage of Renewable Energy Sources ‘need to be
incentivized to encourage People to shift’
183
Energy
Sources:
3. Improving the Efficiency of Energy Supply
Systems:
• ‘Tremendous amounts of Energy is wasted’ when it is
generated
• ‘Improvements & Investments in Efficient Power
Generation Systems can help save Non-Renewable
Energy’ to a large extent
184
Fertilizers
• Fertilizers are:
– ‘Any Organic or Inorganic Material of Natural or
Synthetic Origin that is added to the Soil to supply
one or more Elements essential for the Growth of
Plants’
185
Fertilizers
• Fertilizers are ‘divided into 2 Categories’:
I. Macro-Nutrients:
• Nutrient Substances ‘that are essential & needed in
larger Quantities’
II. Micronutrients:
• Nutrient Substances ‘that are essential for the
growth of Plants but are needed in minute
Quantities’
186
Fertilizers
• ‘Some of the Macro-Nutrients needed by
Plants and Crops are’:
I. ‘Nitrogen’ (N): Leaf Growth
II. ‘Phosphorus (P): Development of Roots,
Flowers, Seeds, & Fruit
III. ‘Potassium’ (K): Strong Stem Growth, Movement
of Water in Plants, Promotion of Flowering and
Fruiting
IV. ‘Calcium’ (Ca)
187
Fertilizers
• ‘Some of the Macro-Nutrients needed by
Plants and Crops are’:
V. ‘Magnesium’ (Mg)
VI. ‘Sulphur’ (S)
188
Fertilizers
• ‘Some of the Micro-Nutrients that are needed
by the Plants & Crops’ include:
I. ‘Copper’ (Cu)
II. ‘Iron’ (Fe)
III. ‘Manganese’ (Mn)
IV. ‘Molybdenum’ (Mo)
V. ‘Zinc’ (Zn)
VI. ‘Boron’ (B)
VII. ‘Silicon’ (Si)
VIII.‘Cobalt’ (Co) 189
Fertilizers
• Types of Fertilizers:
1. Nitrogen Fertilizer:
• Nitrogen Fertilizers are ‘made from Ammonia’ (NH3)
• Ammonia is ‘used as a Feedstock for all other
Nitrogen Fertilizers’
2. Phosphate Fertilizers:
• All Phosphate Fertilizers are ‘obtained by extraction
from Minerals’
• The most popular Phosphate containing Minerals are
‘referred to collectively as Phosphate Rock’
190
Fertilizers
• Types of Fertilizers:
3. Compound Fertilizers:
• Compound Fertilizers, ‘which contain N, P, and K, can
often be produced by mixing Straight Fertilizers’
4. Natural Fertilizers:
• ‘Organic Fertilizers are Peat, Animal Wastes, Plant
Wastes from Agriculture, and treated Sewage Sludge’
• Organic Fertilizers ‘usually contain fewer Nutrients’
191
Fertilizers
• Importance of Fertilizers:
1. Fertilizers ‘replenish the Chemical Elements that
have been exhausted by the Soils’
2. Fertilizers are ‘used to customize the Nutrient
Contents for a particular Crop’
3. Fertilization has ‘enabled vast Tracts of Land to
become Cultivatable’ helping increase
productivity and making Land more useful
4. Fertilizers ‘help maintain the pH Levels of the
Soil’ for optimal growth of Crops
192
Fertilizers
• Importance of Fertilizers:
5. Fertilizers ‘help the produce to be bountiful and
improve the quality of the Crops’ as well
193
Pesticides
• Pesticides are ‘substances meant for
destroying any Pests that cause harm to Plants
& Crops’
• Pesticides can be defined as:
– ‘Any Toxic Substance used to kill Animals or Plants
that cause Economic Damage to Crop or
Ornamental Plants or are hazardous to the Health
of Domestic Animals or Humans’
194
Pesticides
• All Pesticides ‘interfere with normal Metabolic
Processes in the Pest Organisms & eventually
kill’ them
195
Pesticides
• Types of Pesticides:
1. Bactericides:
• These ‘Destroy, Suppress, or Prevent the spread of
Bacteria’
• E.g. Swimming Pool Chemicals containing Chlorine
2. Fungicides:
• These ‘Control, Destroy, make Harmless, or Regulate
the effect of a Fungus’
• E.g. Chemicals used to treat Grey Mould on Grape
Vines and Fruit Trees
196
Pesticides
3. Herbicides:
• These ‘Destroy, Suppress, or Prevent the spread of a
Weed or other Unwanted Vegetation’
• E.g. Herbicide Glyphosate is used to control a range of
Weeds in Home Gardens, Bush Lands, and
Agricultural Fields
197
Pesticides
4. Insecticides:
• These ‘Destroy, Suppress, Inhibit the feeding of, or
Prevent infestations or attacks by an Insect’
• Insecticides are ‘used to control a wide variety of
Insect Pest’
5. Rodenticides:
• These are ‘Chemicals used specifically for controlling
Rodents’
• E.g. Mice and Rats
198
Pesticides
6. Weedicides:
• Pesticides ‘that are used against Weeds’
• They are ‘also a kind of Herbicides’
199
Plastics
• Plastic is ‘a Material consisting of any of a
wide range of Synthetic or Semi-Synthetic
Organic Compounds that are Malleable and
can be molded into Solid Objects’
• Plastics ‘can be made from Coal, Water,
Limestone, or other Materials’
• Nowadays, Plastics are ‘usually Synthetic,
most commonly derived from Petrochemicals’
200
Plastics
• Plastics ‘can be shaped either during or after
their formation’, by application of Heat
• Some of the ‘Special Properties of Plastics
are’:
I. ‘Low Density’
II. ‘Low Electrical Conductivity’
III. ‘Transparency’
IV. ‘Toughness’
201
Plastics
• Types of Plastics:
1. Thermoplastics:
• Thermoplastics are ‘capable of being Molded and
Remolded repeatedly’
• E.g. A Foamed Polystyrene Cup can be heated and
reshaped into a new form
• Polymer Structure associated with Thermoplastics ‘is
that of Individual Molecules that are separate from
one another’
202
Plastics
2. Thermosetting Plastics:
• Thermosetting Plastics ‘cannot be reprocessed upon
reheating’
• During their initial processing, ‘Thermosetting Resins
undergo a Chemical Reaction that results in an
Infusible, Insoluble Network’
• The ‘entire heated, finished Article becomes one
Large Molecule’
• ‘Subsequent application of Heat does not soften the
Material’ to the point where it can be reworked
203
Plastics
2. Thermosetting Plastics:
• ‘Further Heat would only break it down’
204
Plastics
• Varieties of Plastics:
1. Bakelite:
• Bakelite was the ‘1st Plastic made entirely out of
Chemicals’
• It is ‘used on the Heat-Proof Handles of Pans & Irons’
• Bakelite was ‘originally used for Electrical and
Mechanical Parts’, coming into widespread use in
Consumer Goods in the 1920s
205
Plastics
2. Celluloid:
• Celluloid was the 1st Man-made Plastic made from
Cellulose’
• Cellulose is ‘used in manufacturing of Table Tennis
Balls’
206
Plastics
3. Epoxy Plastics:
• Epoxy Plastics ‘are Thermosetting Plastics’
• They are ‘dissolved in Solvents to make powerful
Adhesives’
4. Melamine:
• Melamine is ‘a Thermosetting Plastic’
• Melamine is ‘used extensively in manufacture of
Tableware’
207
Plastics
5. Nylon:
• Nylon is ‘a Thermosetting Plastic’
• It is ‘used widely in Clothing and Weaving Products’
6. Perspex:
• Perspex ‘is a Thermoplastic used to make
Unbreakable Watch Glass’
• It is ‘Hard & Transparent’
208
Plastics
7. Polypropylene:
• Polypropylene is ‘a Transparent Plastic used to make
Light Weight Objects’
• It is ‘used in making Toys, Chairs, Jugs, Car Bumpers,
etc.’
209
Plastics
8. Polystyrene:
• Polystyrene ‘is the cheapest & most used
Thermoplastic’
• It is ‘used to make Kitchen Items and Insulating
Material’
• E.g. Disposable Cups, Food Containers, etc.
210
Plastics
9. Polythene:
• It is the ‘most familiar of all the Plastics’
• It is ‘used to make Polythene Bags, Bowls, Furniture,
Toys, etc.’
211
Plastics
10. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC):
• PVC is ‘Stiff, Strong, Heat, and Weather Resistant’
• It is ‘used in Plumbing, Gutters, House Siding,
Enclosures for Computers, and other Electronics
Gear’ because of its Properties
• It is ‘now used for Shrink Wrapping, Food Packaging,
and Rain Gear’
212
Ceramics
• Ceramics ‘is the Science of manufacturing
Articles prepared from Pliable, Earthy
Materials, which are made rigid by High
Temperature Treatment’
213
Ceramics
• The ‘Materials used in Ceramics are’:
I. ‘Non-Metallic’
II. ‘Inorganic Compounds’
III. ‘Oxides’
IV. ‘Carbides’
V. ‘Nitrides’
VI. ‘Silicides’
214
Ceramics
• Varieties of Ceramics:
1. Clay:
• ‘Used in Brick Tiles’
2. White Wares:
• ‘Used in Dinner Ware, Spark Plugs, Sanitary Ware, &
Floor Tiles’
3. Glass
4. Porcelain Enamel:
• ‘Mainly used in Jewelry and Decorative Art’
215
Ceramics
• Varieties of Ceramics:
5. Refractories:
• ‘Used in Furnaces, Kilns, and Reactors’
216
Ceramics
• Applications of Ceramics:
1. Ceramics ‘are used not only for Artistic Objects
but also for Utilitarian Items’ like Building Walls
2. Ceramic ‘Insulators are widely used widely in the
Electrical Industry because of its properties of
becoming Super Conductive at High
Temperatures’
3. Ceramics ‘are used on Space Shuttles to shield
them from extreme Heat’
217
Ceramics
• Applications of Ceramics:
4. ‘Super Hard Ceramics make excellent Cutting
Tools’
5. If ‘Engines were made with Ceramics, they
would be more efficient’
218

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