Nuclear Chemistry

CHM 001 – Chemistry For Engineers

ENGR. JEAN RAYNELL S. BELLO, MSc.

Technological Institute of the Philippines
Review
Nucleons – subatomic particle found in
the nucleus of an atom; either a proton or
a neutron.
Isotopes – elements with the same
number of protons (same atomic
number); different number of neutrons
(different mass number)
Nuclides – distinct kind of atom or nucleus
characterized by a specific number of
protons and neutrons.
Radioisotopes – isotopes that are
radioactive
Radionuclides – nuclides that are
radioactive
Nuclear Reactions
Transformations of atomic nuclei; Result from changes taking place within
atomic nuclei. Representation of atomic nuclei
12
6C
Atomic number, Z, is shown as a left subscript
Mass number, A, appears as a left superscript
Nuclear Equations – use nuclear symbols and resemble an
ordinary chemical equation which require balancing nuclear
charge and nuclear mass
Example Reactants are an N-14 nucleus and a neutron
14
7 N + 01 n  146 C + 11 H Products are a C-14 nucleus and an H-1
nucleus
Radiation
Radiation is the transmission or
emission of energy in a form of
waves or particle through a space
or through a material medium.

When a radioactive sample

placed in a lead box. It starts
emitting particles which split into
three components as electric field
is applied.
Radiation
The particles that bend towards
the positive plate are called α-
particles. The particles that bend
towards the negative plate are
called β-particles and the rays that
pass without deviating are called γ-
rays.
Penetrating Power of Radiation

Alpha particles, being massive, can be blocked by a few pieces of paper. Beta particles pass through
paper but are stopped by aluminum foil. Gamma rays are the most difficult to stop and require
concrete, lead, or other heavy shielding to block them thus, having a greater penetrating power.
Types of Radioactive Decay
1. α Emission (or α-decay) – a radioactive nuclei emits an alpha particle
When a nucleus emits an alpha particle, its mass number decreases by
four units and its atomic number decreases by two units
An ordinary Helium nucleus is given off. U-238 behaves in this manner
as follows:

α particle
When U-238 nucleus loses an alpha particle, the remaining
fragment has an atomic number of 90 (Thorium) and a mass
number of 234.
Types of Radioactive Decay
2. β Emission – Beta particles produce an electron and are given the
symbol 10 e or β–
90Th  -1 e+
234 0 234
91 Pa
Beta particles are smaller and lighter than alpha particles and have a
lower ionizing power.
Beta decay causes the atomic number of the reactant to increase which
means a proton was created. Therefore, beta emission is equivalent to
the conversion of a neutron to a proton:
Types of Radioactive Decay
3. γ Radiation – comprised high-energy photons. It does not change
the mass number or the atomic number and has the lowest ionizing
power, due to its size.
Gamma radiation usually accompanies other radioactive emission
because it represents the energy lost when the nucleons in a nuclear
reaction reorganize into more stable arrangements.
Often gamma rays are not explicitly shown when writing nuclear
equations.
Types of Radioactive Decay
4. Positron Emission – characteristic of nuclei that have too many protons
for stability;
Positron – the antiparticle of an electron and is usually represented by
0
1 e or β . Carbon–11 decays by positron emission:
+

Positron emission causes the atomic number of the reactant in this equation
to decrease from 6 to 5. In general, positron emission has the effect of
converting a proton to a neutron, thereby decreasing the atomic number of
the nucleus by 1 while not changing the mass number:
Types of Radioactive Decay
5. K-electron Capture – electron in the innermost energy level (n = 1),
also known as K-shell, “falls” into the nucleus. Result of K-electron
capture is the same as positron emission – mass number remains
unchanged, whereas atomic number decreases by one unit.

Rubidium-81 decay behaves in this matter.

Summary: Types of Radioactive Decay
Example 18.2
Promethium (Z = 61) is essentially non-existent in nature; all of its
isotopes are radioactive. Write balanced nuclear equations for the
decomposition of various isotopes of promethium
a) Pm-142 by positron emission
b) Pm-147 by beta emission
c) Pm-150 by alpha emission
Example 18.2
Solution – a) Pm-142 decomposition by positron emission
0
Particle emitted: Positron 1 e or β+

• Mass and atomic number balance

142
61 Pm  01 e + 142
60
• Reaction
142
61 Pm  e +
0
1
142
60 Nd
Example 18.2
Solution – a) Pm-147 decomposition by beta emission
Particle emitted: Beta particle 10 e or β-

• Mass and atomic number balance

147
61 Pm  –10 e + 147
62
• Reaction
147
61 Pm  –10 e + 147
62 Sm
Example 18.2
Solution – a) Pm-150 decomposition by alpha emission
Particle emitted: Alpha particle or α

• Mass and atomic number balance

150
61 Pm  42 He + 146
59
• Reaction
150
61 Pm  He +
4
2
146
59 Pr
Nuclear Stability

• Characteristic of atomic nuclei at the

short distances of separation involves
attractive forces between nuclear
particles
• Balance between the forces and
electrostatic repulsion influences the
stability of a nucleus
Neutron-to-Proton Ratio

Because like charges repel each other,

it may seem surprising that a large
number of protons can reside within
the small volume of the nucleus.
At close distances, however, a strong
force of attraction, called the strong
nuclear force, exists between
nucleons. Neutrons are intimately
involved in this attractive force.
Neutron-to-Proton Ratio
• As the number of protons in a nucleus
increases, there is an eve greater need
for neutrons to counteract the proton–
proton repulsions.
• Stable nuclei with atomic numbers up to
about 20 have approximately equal
numbers of neutrons and protons.
• For nuclei with atomic number above
20, the number of neutrons exceeds the
number of protons
• The belt of stability ends at element 83
(bismuth), which means that all nuclei
with 84 or more protons are
radioactive.
Nuclear Stability
1. Nuclei above the belt of
stability (high neutron-to-
proton ratios).
These neutron-rich nuclei
can lower their ratio and
thereby move toward the
belt of stability by emitting
a beta particle because
beta emission decreases
the number of neutrons
and increases the number
of protons.
Nuclear Stability
2. Nuclei below the belt of
stability (low neutron-to-
proton ratios).
These proton-rich nuclei can
increase their ratio and so
move closer to the belt of
stability by either positron
emission or electron capture
because both decays increase
the number of neutrons and
decrease the number of
protons.
Nuclear Stability
3. Nuclei with atomic
numbers # 84.
These heavy nuclei tend to
undergo alpha emission,
which decreases both the
number of neutrons and
the number of protons by
two, moving the nucleus
diagonally toward the belt
of stability.
Bombardment Reactions
• For synthesis of isotopes and elements.
• Isotopes were prepared in which the stable nucleus is converted into a
radioactive one.
Bombarding Particles:
1. Neutrons
Neutron bombardment of Al-27 produces the radioactive Al-28.
27
13 Al+ n 
1
0
28
13 Al
This product decays by beta emission
28
13 Al  Si+ e
28
14
0
-1
Bombardment Reactions
2. Charged Particles – can be accelerated to high velocities in electric
and/or magnetic fields
27
13 Al + He 
4
2
30
15 P+ n 1
0

Product, phosphorus-30, is radioactive, decaying by positron emission:

30
15 P  Si+ e
30
14
0
+1
Radioactive Decay
Radioactive decay is a first-order process – the reaction depends only on the
concentration of one reactant ([A]).
Where:
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑘[𝐴]
A = Final or current 𝑑𝐴
amount/concentration/activity of − = 𝑘[𝐴]
the reactant 𝑑𝑡
Ao = Initial/Original 𝐴
amount/concentration/activity of
−
𝑑𝐴
= 𝑘𝑑𝑡
ln = −𝑘𝑡
the reactant
[𝐴] 𝐴𝑜
k = Rate constant
t = time
𝐴 𝑡
𝑑𝐴
− =𝑘 𝑑𝑡
𝐴𝑜 [𝐴] 0
Half-Life
Half-life is defined as the time required for a quantity to reduce to half
of its initial value.
𝐴
ln = −𝑘𝑡
𝐴𝑜
0.5 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠
ln = −𝑘𝑡1/2
1 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠
0.693
= 𝑡1/2
𝑘
Activity
Rate of decay of atoms per unit time

A= kN
Where:
A is the activity
k is the first-order rate constant
N is the number of radioactive nuclei present
Units of activity
1 Becquerel (Bq) = 1 atom/s
1 Curie (Ci) = 3.700 X 1010 atoms/s
Example 18.3
The half-life of radium-226 is 1.60 × 103 years. Calculate the rate
constant in s-1.
Solution. Substitute into the formula relating half-life and rate constant
in a first-order reaction
0.693
𝑡1/2 =
𝑘
0.693
𝑡1/2 =
1.60 × 103 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
𝑡1/2 = 4.33 × 10−4 𝑦𝑟 −1 = 1.37 × 10−11 𝑠 −1