Unit – I

Functions and Their Graphs - Combining Functions; Shifting and Scaling Graphs -
Trigonometric Functions - Exponential Functions - Inverse Functions and Logarithms. Limit
of a function and limit laws - one sided limits – Continuity - Limits Involving Infinity;
Asymptotes of Graphs

Functions and Their Graphs

Functions are a tool for describing the real world in mathematical terms. A function can
be represented by an equation, a graph, a numerical table, or a verbal description;
 The temperature at which water boils depends on the elevation above sea level (the
boiling point drops as you ascend).
 The interest paid on a cash investment depends on the length of time the investment is
held.
 The area of a circle depends on the radius of the circle.
 The distance an object travels at constant speed along a straight-line path depends on
the elapsed time.
In each case, the value of one variable quantity, say y, depends on the value of another
variable quantity, which we might call x. We say that “y is a function of x” and write this
symbolically as y  f (x) (“y equals f of x”).
In this notation, the symbol f represents the function, the letter x is the independent
variable representing the input value of f and y is the dependent variable or output value of f
at x.

Def: A function f from a set D to a set Y is a rule that assigns a unique (single) element
f (x)  Y to each element x D

Let f :D  Y be a function, then the set D of all possible input values is called the domain
of the function and the set Y is called codomain of f. The set of all output values of f(x) as x
varies throughout D is called the range of the function.

Note: The range may not include every element in the set Y.
 Example:

Mathematically, a function f from a set of elements D to a set of elements Y is a rule that

assigns to each element x in D exactly one element y in Y.
The above definition can be verified by the following arrow diagram:

Natural domains and associated ranges of some simple functions:

S.No. Functions Domain Range
1 y  x ( ,  ) ( ,  )

y  x ( ,  ) [0,  )
2
2
1
3 y  (  , 0 )  (0,  ) (  , 0 )  (0,  )
x

4 y  x ( ,  ) [0,  )

x
5 y  (  , 0 )  (0,  ) {-1, 1}
x

1
6 y  (  , 0 )  (0,  ) (0,  )
2
x
The vertical line test for a function:
Every curve in the coordinate plane cannot be the graph of a function. A function f can have
only one value of f(x) for each x in its domain, so no vertical line can intersect the graph of a
function more than once. If a is in the domain of the function the vertical line x = a will
intersect the graph of f at the single point (a, f(a)).
The Vertical line test states that if a vertical line drawn through a graph cuts the graph
at only one point, then the graph is a function.

Also, a circle cannot be the graph of a function, since some vertical lines intersect the circle
twice. But, a semicircle can be a graph of a function as shown below:

Types of Functions (depending upon domain and codomain)

A function f: A → B
Injective (One to One): A function f: A → B is one-to-one (injective) if f maps every element
of A to a unique element in B. In other words no element of B is mapped by two or more
elements of A.

.
Surjective (Onto): A function f: A → B is onto (surjective) if every element of B is mapped
by some element of . In other words, no elements exist in B without a pre-image in A.

Bijective (One to One - Onto): A function f: A → B is bijective if it is both one-to-one and

onto.

Combining Functions:
Like numbers, functions can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided (except
where the denominator is zero) to produce new functions. If ƒ and g are functions, then for
every x that belongs to the domains of both ƒ and g (that is, for x  D( f )  D(g) , we define
functions ƒ + g, ƒ - g, and ƒg by the formulas
(ƒ + g)(x) = ƒ(x) + g(x)
(ƒ - g)(x) = ƒ(x) - g(x)
(ƒg)(x) = ƒ(x)g(x).
Notice that the + sign on the left-hand side of the first equation represents the operation of
addition of functions, whereas the + on the right-hand side of the equation means addition of
the real numbers ƒ(x) and g(x).
At any point of D(ƒ) ∩ D(g) at which g(x) ≠ 0, we can also define the function ƒ/g by the
 f  f (x)
formula   (x)  (where g(x) ≠ 0).
 g  g (x)

Functions can also be multiplied by constants: If c is a real number, then the function
cƒ is defined for all x in the domain of ƒ by (cƒ)(x) = cƒ(x).

EXAMPLE 1 The functions defined by the formulas

 The graph of the function f+g is obtained from the graphs of f and g by adding the
corresponding y-coordinates f(x) and g(x) at each point x  D( f )  D(g) , as in figure 1. The
graphs of f+g and f.g from Example 1 are shown in figure 2.

Composite Functions:
Composition is another method for combining functions.
Def: If f and g are functions, the composite function f g (“f composed with g”) is defined
by (f g )( x )  f ( g ( x )) . The domain of f g consists of the numbers x in the domain of g
for which g(x) lies in the domain of f.
 A composite function f g uses the output
g(x) of the first function g as the input for
the second function f.
Note: To evaluate the composite function
g f (when defined), we find f(x) first and
then g(f(x)).
Note: The functions f g and g f are
usually quite different

Example: If f (x)  x and g (x)  x  1, then

Composite Domian

( f g )(x)=f(g(x))= x 1   1,  

(g f )(x)=g(f(x))= x 1 0,  

( f f )(x)=f(f(x))= x  x
1/ 4
0,  

(g g )(x)=g(g(x))=g(x)+1=(x+1)+1=x+2   , 

Shifting and scaling of graphs:

Shifting a graph of a function:
We can modify or shift the given graph to up/down or right/left by adding some
constants to each output of the existing function or to its input variable respectively.

Example:

Now, shifts the graph up 1 unit,

and shifts the graph down 2 units.

  ( x  3)
2
Also, y shifts the graph 3 units to the left,

y  (x  2)
2
And, shifts the graph 2 units to the right.

Scaling (and reflecting) a graph of a function:

Similar to the shifting, we can modify the graphs by stretching or compressing it,
vertically or horizontally, known as scaling of graphs. This is done by multiplying the
function f, or the independent variable x, by a constant c.
For a particular case of c, i.e., for c = - 1, the graph becomes the reflection about its
axes, known as reflecting of graphs.
Example:

Vertical: stretching the graph by a factor of 3.

compressing the graph by a factor of 3.

Horizontal: compressing the graph by a factor of 3.

stretching the graph by a factor of 3.

Reflection: reflection of the graph about x - axis.

reflection of the graph about y - axis.

Example: For the given function , find the formula to

(i) to compress the graph vertically by a factor of 3 followed by a reflection across the y-axis.
(ii) to compress the graph horizontally by a factor of 2 followed by a reflection across the x-
axis.
Solution: (i) The formula is

(ii) The formula is

Limit of a function:
The idea behind limits is to analyze what the function is "approaching" when x
"approaches" a specific value. To start getting used to this idea, let's turn to this graph:

When x approaches the value "a" on the x-

axis, the function f(x) approaches "L" on the y
axis.
Let's turn to the graph of a function whose expression we know:

This is the function f(x)=x2 . Let's focus on

the point (1, 1). We can see from the graph
that when x approaches 1, the function f(x)
approaches 1. When this happens, we say
that:

Notation: If we let the arrow symbol represent the word approach, then the symbolism

indicates that x approaches to a number a from the left, i.e., through numbers that are
less than a, and

indicates that x approaches to a number a from the right, i.e., through numbers that
are greater than a.

Finally, the symbol signifies that x approaches a from both sides, i.e., from the left
and right sides of a on a number line.
One-sided-limit: In general, if a function f(x) can be made arbitrarily close to a number L1 by
taking x sufficiently close to, but not equal to, a number a from the left, then we write

.
The number L1 is said to be the left-hand limit of f(x) as x approaches a. Similarly, if f(x) can
made arbitrarily close to a number L2 by taking x sufficiently close to, but not equal to, a
number a from the right, then L2 is the right-hand limit of f(x) as x approaches a and we write

.
These right and left side limits are known as one-sided-limit.

Two-sided-limits: If both the left-hand limit and right-hand limit exists

and have a common value L,

and
Then, we say that L is the limit of f(x) as x approaches a and write

.
This is known as two-sided limit.

Example: The graph of a function is shown in the figure.

As seen from the graph,

and

And consequently .
Example: The graph of the greatest integer function or floor function ( greatest
integer less than or equal to x) is given below:

We can see from the graph, for each integer n does not exist.

and .

Example: The graph of a piecewise-defined function

Is shown below:

From the graph, it appears that x approaches 5 through numbers less than 5 that

Then as x approaches 5 through numbers greater than 5, it appears that

But since, We conclude that does not exist.

Limit Laws: To calculate limits of functions that are arithmetic combinations of functions
having known limits, we have following rules:

If L, M, c and k are real numbers and and , then

8. Limits of Polynomials:

9. Limits of rational Functions:

Continuity:
A function f(x) is said to be continuous at x=a if
(i) f(a) is defined (ii) lim f ( x ) exists and (iii) lim f ( x )  f ( a )
x a x a

Note: A function f is continuous

(i) on an open interval (a, b) if it is continuous at every number in the interval and
(ii) on a closed interval [a, b] if it is continuous on (a, b) and in addition
lim f ( x )  f ( a ) and lim f ( x )  f ( b )
 
x a x b

Note: A function which is not continuous is called a discontinuous function

Note: The inverse of any continuous function on an interval is continuous over its domain.
Note: If f is continuous at c and g is continuous at f(c), then the composite g f is continuous
at c.

Limits involving infinity: Asymptotes of Graphs

Example 1: Graph of the function f(x)=1/x.
Here, and .
In writing this, we are not saying that the limit exist and equals the number -∞ (+∞).
We are saying that the limit of the function does not exist because its values becomes
arbitrarily large and negative (positive) as x→0 - (x→0+).

Example 2: Graph of the function f(x)=1/(x-1).

Here, and .

Vertical asymptotes:

In Example 1: x=0 is the asymptote and in Example 2: x=1 is the asymptote.

Horizontal Asymptotes:
A line y = L is said to be a horizontal asymptote for the graph of a function f(x) if at
least one of the two statements (given in the definition of limits at infinity) is true.

5x  8x  3
2

Example: The graph of the function f (x)  :

3x  2
2

Therefore, the line y = 5/3 is the horizontal asymptote.

 Unit – I: Functions and Their Graphs

Short Answer Questions:

g (x)  x  3x
2
1. Find the domain and range of .
2
2. Identify the domain and range of g (t )  .
t  16
2

f (x)  1  x
2
3. Obtain the domain and range of .
y 1 x
3
4. Give the resulting equation, if stretched horizontally by a factor of 2.
5. If the equation y  2x  7 is shifted up by 7 units, find the resulting equation.
6. Write the equations if f (x)  2  x , (i) Reflected about the x-axis (ii) Reflected about
the y-axis.
7. Define Limit of function.
t  3t  2
2

8. Find lim
t  t  2
2
t1

1  x  s in x
9. Find lim
x 0 3 cos x
1  cos
10. Find lim
 0 s in 2 
11. Define a Continuous function.
12. If f ( x )  x  1  s in x , find at which points, f(x) fail to be continuous?

x  9
2

13. Calculate g (3) in a way that extends g (x)  to be continuous at x=3.

x  3

3x  5x  1
7 2

14. Find lim

6x  7x  3
3
x 

1
2 x  x
15. Find lim
x  3x  7

16. Define Horizontal and Vertical Asymptotes.

Long Answer Questions:
f (x)  x  4 x  10
4 3
1. Given the function , find formulas to
(i) compress the graph horizontally by a factor 2 followed by a reflection across the
y-axis.
(ii) compress the graph vertically by a factor of 2 followed by reflection across the x-
axis.
2. Find the equation of the graph, if the graph of given equation is shifted in the
mentioned direction and by the given units.
1
y  x (ii) y  x  1  5
2 /3
(i) ; Right 2, Down 3 ; Down 5, Right 4
2
3. Give an equation for the stretched or compressed graph.
y  x 1,
2
(i) stretched vertically by a factor of 3
y  x 1,
2
(ii) compressed horizontally by a factor of 2
4. Give an equation for the stretched or compressed graph.
1
(i) y  1  2
, compressed vertically by a factor of 2
x

1
(ii) y  1  2
, stretched horizontally by a factor of 3
x
5. Express the area and perimeter of an equilateral triangle as a function of the triangle’s
side length x.
6. Express the side length of a square as a function of the length d of the square’s
diagonal. Then express the area as a function of the diagonal length.
y  2 x 1
7. Calculate (i) lim (ii) lim
 5y  6
2
y 2 x1
y x  3  2

t  3t  2 2  x  5
2 2

8. Find (i) lim (ii) lim

t  t  2 x  3
2
t  1 x  3

9. Suppose lim f ( x )  5 and lim g ( x )   2 . Find

x c x c

f (x)
(i) lim f ( x ) g ( x ) (ii) lim  f ( x )  3 g ( x )  (iii) lim
x c x c x c f (x)  g (x)

10. Suppose lim p( x)  4 , lim r ( x )  0 and lim s ( x )   3 . Find

x  2 x  2 x  2

(i) lim  p ( x )  r ( x )  s ( x )  (ii) lim  p ( x ) r ( x ) s ( x ) 

x  2 x  2

(iii) lim (  4 p ( x )  5 r ( x )) / s ( x )
x  2

x  2 x  2
11. Find (i) lim ( x  3) (ii) lim ( x  3)
x  2 x  2
 
x  2 x  2
 1  cos s in 
12. Calculate lim (Hint: lim  1)
 0 s in 2   0 
s in 3 y c o t 5 y s in 
13. Find lim (Hint: lim  1)
y 0 y cot 4 y  0 

14. At what points do the following functions fail to be continuous?

x  2 x ta n x
(i) y  (ii) y 
x 1
2
cos x

x  x  6
2

 , x  3
15. Find whether continuous or not, g (x)   x  3
5, , x  3


 x 8
3

 2 , x  2, x  2
x  4

16. Find whether continuous or not, g ( x )   3, , x  2

 4, , x  2


 x  1, x  3
2


17. For what value of a is f (x)   continuous at every x?
 2 a x , x  3

 ax  2b, x  0

 2
18. For what values of a and b is g ( x)   x  3a  b, 0  x  2 continuous at every x?

 3 x  5 , x  2

5x  2x  9 x 
8 3 3 5
x
19. Find (i) lim (ii) lim
3  x  4x
5
x  x   3
x 
5
x

 x  7
5/3 1/3
4  3x
3
2x
20. Find (i) lim (ii) lim
 3x 
x  8/5
x  
x  9
6
x x

x  x  2
2

21. Find the asymptotes to graph of f (x) 

x  2x 1
2

x  s in x  2 x
22. Find the asymptotes to graph of f (x) 
x  s in x

x  4
2

23. Find the asymptotes to graph of g (x) 

x

x  4
2

24. Find the asymptotes to graph of y 

x  3