CAD/CAM Principles and Applications: CH 3 Computer Graphics

CAD/CAM Principles and
Applications
Ch 3 Computer Graphics
CAD/CAM Principles and 1

Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed
Objectives
• Convert vector straight lines to raster images to be displayed on
a raster terminal utilizing the pixel information
• Understand the problems associated with displaying vectorial
information on a raster terminal
• Various types of coordinate systems used in displaying CAD
information
• The data requirements of a graphic image and the database
storage methods used
• Different types of geometric transformations used during CAD
geometry generation and display and their evaluation
• Mathematics required to display a 3D image on the 2D screen of
the display device
• Understand the problems associated with the display of graphic
images in the display screen such as clipping and hidden line
elimination
3.1 Raster Scan Graphics
• DDA or Digital Differential Analyser is
one of the first algorithms developed for
rasterising the vectorial information. The
equation of a straight line is given by
• Y =m X + C

Fig. 3.1 A straight line drawing
Y
y2
y1
X
x1
x2

Fig. 3.2 Flow chart for Calculate dx = x2 - x1
dy = y2 - y1
line drawing calculation

procedure
If |dx| > |dy| Yes St = |dx|
No
ST = |dy|
dx = dx / ST
dy = dy / ST
X = xi
Y = yi
Set pixel at X, Y
X = X + dx
Y = Y + dy
End of Loop?
No
Yes
STOP

3.1.2 Bresenham's Algorithm
• Bresenham's method is an
improvement over DDA since it
completely eliminates the floating-point
arithmetic except for the initial
computations.
• All other computations are fully integer
arithmetic thus is more efficient for
raster conversion
Fig. 3-3 Line drawing using Bresenham
algorithm
Y
i+1
y d2
d1
i
i i+1
X

Calculate dx = x2 - x1
dy = y2 - y1
Fig. 3.4 Flow chart for

C1 = 2 dy
C2 = 2 (dy - dx)
line drawing calculation x = x1

y = y1
using Bresenham
p1 = 2 dy - dx
Put a pixel at (x1, y1)
procedure
x=x+1
P(i+1) = Pi + C2
If Pi < 0 No
Y(i+1) = y(i) + 1
Yes
P(i+1) = P(i) + C1
y(i+1) = y(i)
No End of loop?
Yes
STOP

3.1.3 Antialiasing lines

Fig. 3.5 The staircase effect of pixels when
drawing inclined lines

Fig. 3.6 The staircase effect of pixels when drawing
inclined lines decreases with increased resolution

Fig. 3.7 Antialiasing of pixels proportional to
the portion of pixel occupied by the line
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Fig. 3.8 Unequal number of lines displayed
with the same number of pixels

3.2 Co-ordinate systems

Fig. 3.9 A typical component to be modelled
50
90
60
40
120
40
20
30
15
0

World Co-ordinate System
• This refers to the actual co-ordinate
system used as master for the
component.
• Some times it may also be called as
model co-ordinate system.

Fig. 3.10 A typical component with its
associated WCS
Z
Y

User Co-ordinate System
• However, sometimes it becomes difficult
to define certain geometries if they are
to be defined from the WCS. In such
cases alternate co-ordinate systems
can be defined relative to the WCS.
These co-ordinate systems are termed
as user co-ordinate systems (UCS) or
working co-ordinate systems.
Fig. 3.11 A typical component with its
associated UCS
Z'
Y'
Z
Y
X'

Display Co-ordinates
• This refers to the actual co-ordinates to
be used for displaying the image on the
screen.

Fig. 3.12 A typical component with its various
view positions
TOP
Z
Y
FRONT RIGHT SIDE

Fig. 3.13 Various views generated from the
model shown in Fig 3.12
60
20
90
X
TOP
Z
50 60
120
20
40
Z Z
30
X Y
150
Y X
FRONT RIGHT SIDE

3.3 Database Structures for
Graphic Modelling

3.3 Database Structures for
Graphic Modelling
• Organisational data • Technological data
• Identification number, • Geometry,
• Drawing number, • Dimensions,
• Design origin and status • Tolerances,
of changes, • Surface finishes,
• Current status, • Material specifications
• Designer name, or reference,
• Date of design, • Manufacturing
• Scale, procedures,
• Type of projections, • Inspection procedures.
• Company.
Fig. 3.14 Data structure for geometric models
SOLID
EDGE
VERTEX SURFACE
VERTEX
SURFACE

Fig. 3.15 Complete data structure for
geometric models of products
Product
Assembly
Dimensions Attributes
Single parts
Solid body
Faces
Edges
Vertices

Fig. 3.16 Relational data structure for
geometric models
solid body Face list Edges Vertices
X Y Z

3.4 Transformation of
Geometry
• Translation
• Scaling
• Reflection or Mirror
• Rotation

Fig. 3-17 Some of the possible geometric
transformations
Y Y
dY
dX
X X
Translation Scaling
Y
Y
25
30
X
°
25
X
Rotation
Reflection
Fig. 3.18 Translation of geometry
Y'
Y P*
Z'
P X'
Z
P
Y
X
X

Fig. 3.19 Translation of geometry in 2D
Y
Y' P*
dY
P
X'
dX
X
Fig. 3.20 Scaling of geometry in 2D
P*
P
sY
Y
X
X
sX

Fig. 3.21 Reflection of geometry in 2D
Y Y
28 28
25
X -X X
25
-X X
-Y

Fig. 3.22 Example for reflection transformation
Y
y
X
-y
P*

Fig. 3-23 Example for rotation transformation
P*
P
θ
y*
r
y
α
x* X
O x

Fig. 3.24 Example
13.66 Y
10
8.66
30°
5
3.66
X
5 8.66

3.4.5 Concatenation of
transformations
• [P*] = [Tn] [Tn-1] [Tn-2] .. [T3] [T2] [T1]

3.4.6 Homogeneous
Representation
 x * 1 0 dX   x 
    
[P *] =  y * = 0 1 dY   y  
 1  0 0 1   1 

Rotation about an arbitrary
point
• Translate the point P to O, the origin of
the axes system.
• Rotate the object by the given angle
• Translate the point back to its original
position.

Fig. 3.25 Rotation about an arbitrary point
P*
r P
θ
r
A
dY
X
O dX

Reflection about an arbitrary
line
• Translate the mirror line along the Y-axis
such that the line passes through the origin,
O
• Rotate the mirror line such that it coincides
with the X-axis.
• Mirror the object through the X-axis.
• Rotate the mirror line back to the original
angle with X-axis.
• Translate the mirror line along the Y-axis
back to the original position.
Fig. 3.26 Example for reflection transformation
about an arbitrary line
P*
P
θ
C
X
O
3.5 3D Transformations
 x * 1 0 0 dX   x
 y * 0 1 0 dY   y
 =   
 z *  0 0 1 dZ  z
     
 1  0 0 0 1  1

3.6 Mathematics of Projection

Fig. 3.27 The principle of projection
Projector
Drawing Object
Projecting plane

Fig. 3.28 An object enclosed in a cube to
obtain various parallel projections
B
E
C
Z
Y
A
X
D

Fig. 3.29 Orthographic projection of an object
Y
B
E
X
C TOP VIEW
Z Z
Y Z
D A C E
A Y
X X
D LEFT SIDE VIEW FRONT VIEW RIGHT SIDE VIEW REAR VIEW
BOTTOM VIEW

3.7 Clipping

Fig. 3.30 Clipping of geometry for display
T
L
R

Fig. 3.31 The 4-digit coding of the line end
points for clipping
1001 1000 1010
0001 0000 0010
0101 0100 0110

Fig. 3.32 Identical line clipping of two different
geometries

Fig. 3.33 Clipping produced for different
geometries by polygon clipping

Fig. 3.34 Back-face removal using the face
normal and projecting ray
Y
P
N
X
Summary
• In order to display the graphical information, which is vectorial in
nature, it is necessary to convert it into raster format.
• For converting lines into raster format, DDA algorithm is
simplest while Bresenham’s algorithm reduces the computations
into integer format thereby making it a faster alternative.
• It is necessary to modify the pixel information for display to get
more realistic visual experience.
• Depending upon the type of graphic display used, it is
necessary to be familiar with a number of different coordinate
systems to facilitate the graphic construction as well as display.
• In addition to the actual graphic information, a large amount of
additional data such as organizational and technological data is
stored with the product data.

Summary
• Geometric transformations can be handled conveniently using
matrix algebra. For this purpose it is necessary to use
homogenous representation of vertex data.
• Various transformations that are quite useful are translation,
rotation, scale and reflection. The 2D transformation methods
can be easily extended into 3D.
• The 3D geometry data needs to be converted into 2D by
adopting a suitable projection system such as orthographic,
isometric or perspective projection.
• Since only part of the geometric model will be displayed most of
the time, it is necessary to clip the information outside the
display window.
• Also it is necessary some times to remove the hidden lines to
make the display easier to understand. For this purpose back
face removal and depth buffer (Z) are used.

CAD/CAM Principles and Applications: CH 3 Computer Graphics

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CAD/CAM Principles and

CAD/CAM Principles and 1

CAD/CAM Principles and 3

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line drawing calculation

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Fig. 3.4 Flow chart for

line drawing calculation x = x1

Put a pixel at (x1, y1)

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inclined lines decreases with increased resolution

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FRONT RIGHT SIDE

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solid body Face list Edges Vertices

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• [P*] = [Tn] [Tn-1] [Tn-2] .. [T3] [T2] [T1]

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1001 1000 1010

0001 0000 0010

0101 0100 0110

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