GROUP 5

IRRIGATION IMPLEMENTS AND STRUCTURES

IMPLEMENTS FOR FARM IRRIGATION

1. Spike tooth harrow
It is a harrow with tough flexible teeth, suitable to work in hard and stony soils. Spring tooth
harrow is fitted with springs having loops of elliptical shape.
The harrow is an excellent tool for pre-emergence cultivation to break the rain-firmed crust
and small weeds. It generally works about 2 inches of depth. Spike tooth harrows may be of
rigid type and flexible type. The animal drawn spike tooth harrow is usually of rigid type. These
may or may not have provisions for changing the angle of spikes in operating conditions.
Tractor drawn harrows are usually flexible type. It has got the advantage of being turned up for
transporting purpose.
This harrow mainly consists of teeth, tooth bar frame, clamps, guard, braces, levers and
hooks. The teeth are made up of hardened steel with square/triangular/circular in section. The
teeth are so placed on tooth bar that no tooth is directly behind the other. Teeth are fastened
rigidly to the tooth bar. Clamps are rigidly fixed so as not to be loose while in operation.
Two Types:
i. Rigid Type

The animal drawn spike tooth harrows are usually of rigid type. There may or may not be
provision for changing the angles of spikes in operating condition.
ii. Flexible Type

Tractor drawn harrows are usually flexible type. It has got advantage of being rolled up
for transporting purpose.

2. Plow (plough)
It is the most important agricultural implement since the beginning of history. It is used to
turn and break up soil, to bury crop residues, and to help control weeds.
It is also used chiefly to break up hardpan and packed soils, include the subsoiler and the chisel
plow. The subsoiler must be pulled by a heavy tractor, for its steel-pointed shank is capable of
penetrating the subsoil to a depth of three feet. It has several rigid or spring-toothed shawith
double pointed shovels mounted on a transverse bar at intervals of one to three feet. Plowing
depths vary from a few inches to 1.5 feet.
 3. Drag Harrow
Used to loosen and even out soil after it has been plowed and packed. It pulls up large
rocks which may then be picked up manually and put in the tractor's stone box to remove from
the field

Implements for making borders

1 Fresno (scraper)
Established the basis for the modern earthmoving scraper, being able to scrape and move
a load of soil, then discharge it at a controlled depth.
the Fresno Scraper transformed the back-breaking labor of land leveling, ditch digging
and road and railroad building. It helped to change the way that earth could be scraped, moved,
dumped and leveled. The “Fresno” and its variants made possible the early-day irrigation canals,
ditches and level fields in the Central Valley of California, as well as the construction of dams,
roads and railroad right-of-ways. It indeed was the forerunner and provided the basis for the
development of the modern day earth-moving scraper.

2. Land Leveler

Modifies the surface relief by grading and smoothing to a planned grade and to certain
specifications required to facilitate or improve the uniform application of water.

It is the process of flattening or modifying existing slopes or undulations rather than

necessarily creating a level surface as the name may imply.
Implements for making deep furrows

Furrow irrigation is a type of surface irrigation in which trenches or “furrows” are dug
between crop rows in a field. Farmers flow water down the furrows and it seeps vertically and
horizontally to refill the soil reservoir. Flow to each furrow is individually controlled

Implements for making corrugation

Corrugation irrigation is well adapted for the irrigation of medium- and heavy-textured
soils. If fields have a tendency to bake, they are difficult to irrigate by flood methods.

Flooding causes the soils to puddle and run together, which results in a hard crust after
the surface dries. The crusting may retard plant growth.
IRRIGATION STRUCTURES
Structures that are used to properly measure, regulate and distribute water from the point
of diversion to the point of terminal use. Built above the irrigated lands so that each irrigator
obtains water directly from the main canal which carries water during the entire irrigation
season.

Structures used to supply water at the right time and right quantity. It is economical and it
is always satisfactory to the irrigator, to build structures that have the required capacity and the
strength to control the water at the irrigator’s will.
General classes of Irrigation structures

1. Permanent structures
No structure is truly permanent, but the term permanent is applied to those
structures which remain in place during one or more irrigation seasons.
2. Temporary structures
Structures that are moved from place to place during each irrigation, or those that
are built for only one season’s use.

In an irrigation scheme, many structures with different functions exist. This report
concentrates on presenting some typical structures that are commonly used for small irrigation
schemes.

The irrigation system consists of a (main) intake structure, a conveyance system, a

distribution system, a field application system, and a drainage system.

The (main) intake structure, directs water from the source of supply, such as a reservoir or a
river, into the irrigation system.

The conveyance system assures the transport of water from the main intake structure or main
pumping station up to the field ditches.

The distribution system assures the transport of water through field ditches to the irrigated fields.

The field application system assures the transport of water within the fields.

The drainage system removes the excess water (caused by rainfall and/or irrigation) from the
fields.

Main intake structure

A diversion structure is an intake structure. Purpose is to direct water from the original
source of supply (lake, river, reservoir etc.) into the irrigation system.
 Diverts the desired amount of water to the ditches and permits surplus or high water to
by-pass without damage to the dam or channel.

The conveyance and distribution systems consist of canals transporting the water through
the whole irrigation system. Canal structures are required for the control and measurement of the
water flow.

Open canals

An open canal, channel, or ditch, is an open waterway whose purpose is to carry water
from one place to another. Channels and canals refer to main waterways supplying water to one
or more farms. Field ditches have smaller dimensions and convey water from the farm entrance
to the irrigated fields.

i. Canal characteristics

According to the shape of their cross-section, canals are called rectangular (a), triangular
(b), trapezoidal (c), circular (d), parabolic (e), and irregular or natural (f) (see Fig. 73).

The most commonly used canal cross-section in irrigation and drainage, is the trapezoidal
cross-section. For the purposes of this publication, only this type of canal will be considered.

The freeboard of the canal is the height of the bank above the highest water level
anticipated. It is required to guard against overtopping by waves or unexpected rises in the water
level.

ii. Earthen Canals

Earthen canals are simply dug in the ground and the bank is made up from the removed earth.

The disadvantages of earthen canals are the risk of the side slopes collapsing and the
water loss due to seepage. They also require continuous maintenance in order to control weed
growth and to repair damage done by livestock and rodents.

iii. Lined Canals

Earthen canals can be lined with impermeable materials to prevent excessive seepage and growth
of weeds.

Lining canals is also an effective way to control canal bottom and bank erosion. The
materials mostly used for canal lining are concrete (in precast slabs or cast in place), brick or
rock masonry.
 The advantages of lined canals are it reduces the loss of water due to seepage and hence
the duty is enhanced, it provides smooth surface that result to an increase in the velocity of the
flow and it reduces maintenance cost for the canals.

Disadvantages of lined canal is that the construction cost is much higher than for earthen
canals. Initial cost of the canal lining is high. It involves difficulties for repairing the damaged
section of the lining.

Canal structures

The flow of irrigation water in the canals must always be under control. For this purpose,
canal structures are required. They help regulate the flow and deliver the correct amount of water
to the different branches of the system and onward to the irrigated fields.

There are four main types of structures: erosion control structures, distribution control
structures, crossing structures and water measurement structures.

i. Erosion control structures

Canals need to be protected against the erosive force of flowing water. Canal bottom slope
and water velocity are closely related. Irrigation water may need to be transported over steeply
sloping land. If a canal had the same slope as the surrounding steeply sloping field, the flow
velocity in the canal would be very high.

a. Drop structures and chutes

Drop structures or chutes are required to reduce the bottom slope of canals lying on
steeply sloping land in order to avoid high velocity of the flow and risk of erosion.

DROP STRUCTURE

Drop structures take the water abruptly from a higher section of the canal to a lower one.
Drops are used in ditches to slow down the velocity of water and protect the channel. Water is
conveyed down the slope in the stepwise manner. It regulates structures which lowers the water
level along its course. They can be made of cement, tile pipe or wood.

CHUTE

In a chute, the water does not drop freely but is carried through a steep, lined canal
section. Chute structures are constructed with concrete, bricks or cement. Chutes may be made to
control flow for elevation changes up to 6m. A straight apron is used for small structure used in
small irrigation channel. Chutes are used where there are big differences in the elevation of the
canal.

ii. Distribution control structures

Distribution control structures are required for easy and accurate water distribution within
the irrigation system and on the farm.

a. Division boxes

Division boxes are used to divide or direct the flow of water between two or more canals
or ditches. Water enters the box through an opening on one side and flows out through openings
on the other sides. These openings are equipped with gates.

b. Turnouts

Turnouts are constructed in the bank of a canal. They divert part of the water from the canal to a
smaller one. Turnouts can be concrete structures or pipe structures.

Turnout function:

At the turnout, several functions are typically found:

1. On/off control of water flow

2. Flow rate control. That is, a turnout usually has a valve to adjust the flow rate somewhere
between maximum and zero. However, in many cases the downstream conditions
determine the flow rate, and turnout on/off control valve remains completely open. An
example would be a piped or gravity turnout with a pump immediately downstream.
3. Flowrate measurement (instantaneous). A device may have a direct readout (digital or a
needle or a height on a gauge) or, a flow formula or table may be used with several
measurements such as gate opening and difference in water level.

c. Checks

1. Check gates
-obstructs the flow in the canal and consequently the water level rises.

The check gate is a structure used to maintain or increase water level in an open channel.
It is required at critical points in the ditch through which the water flows to the farm. Check is
placed in an irrigation channel to form an adjustable dam to control or rise the elevation of the
water surface upstream by at least about 8 to 12 cm above ground surface.
 There may or may not be flow past a check. When there is no flow past them, checks act
as dam that confine water release in the area along the canal or ditch being used for irrigation.
Permanent check can be used in either lined or unlined channels. A check structure consists of
canvas, metal or masonry walls built across the channel and provided with a suitable gate or
outlet device. Checks can be permanent structures or temporary structures.

iii. Crossing structures

It is often necessary to carry irrigation water across roads, hillsides and natural
depressions. Crossing structures, such as flumes, culverts and inverted siphons, are then required.

a. Culverts

Culverts are used to carry the water across roads. The structure consists of masonry or
concrete headwalls at the inlet and outlet connected by a buried pipeline. Typically embedded so
as to be surrounded by soil, a culvert may be made from a pipe, reinforced concrete or other
material.

c. Inverted siphons

When water has to be carried across a road which is at the same level as or below the
canal bottom, an inverted siphon is used instead of a culvert. The structure consists of an inlet
and outlet connected by a pipeline. Inverted siphons are also used to carry water across wide
depressions.

ii. Water Measurement Structures

The principal objective of measuring irrigation water is to permit efficient distribution

and application. By measuring the flow of water, a farmer knows how much water is applied
during each irrigation.

In irrigation schemes where water costs are charged to the farmer, water measurement
provides a basis for estimating water charges.

The most commonly used water measuring structures are weirs and flumes. In these
structures, the water depth is read on a scale which is part of the structure. Using this reading, the
flow-rate is then computed from standard formulas or obtained from standard tables prepared
specially for the structure.
a. Weirs

In its simplest form, a weir consists of a wall of timber, metal or concrete with an
opening with fixed dimensions cut in its edge. The opening, called a notch, may be rectangular,
trapezoidal or triangular.

b. Parshall flumes

The Parshall flume consists of a metal or concrete channel structure with three main
sections: (1) a converging section at the upstream end, leading to (2) a constricted or throat
section and (3) a diverging section at the downstream end

c. Cut-throat flume

The cut-throat flume is similar to the Parshall flume, but has no throat section, only
converging and diverging sections. Unlike the Parshall flume, the cut-throat flume has a flat
bottom. Because it is easier to construct and install, the cut-throat flume is often preferred to the
Parshall flume.