SEMANTICS

1. Basic ideas in semantics

Unit 1 : ABOUT SEMANTICS

-Definition of semantics

Semantics is the study of meaning in language, thats including words, phrases, and sentences
with conventional meaning. This study is the systematic of meaning (psycholinguistics,
philosophy, and linguistics) and linguistics semantics is study how language organize and express
the meaning. Semantics focus on what word conventionally mean that is on what individual
speaker might want on pacticular occasion. The concerned of semantics with objective (general
meaning) and avoid trying to account for subjective (local meaning).

- Speaker meaning

Speaker meaning is what a speaker mean, sthe contextual meaning that utterance by the
speaker. The meaning which the words have on particular ocassion of use in the context which
they occur. For the example “ I don’t have money” then the speaker want to be treated by the
friends’s of the speaker.

- Sentence meaning

Sentence meaning is iwhat a sentence (or word) means, i.e. what it counts as the equivalent
of in the language concerned. That’s the compositional meaning as bulit up from the meanings
of the individual words of the sentence. Not all sentences are used by speakers to provide
information, but sometimes they are used to keep the social wheel spinning smoothly and
friendly polite relations between them. Even when the resulting sentence is actually informative,
the information itself is an act of courtesy, done to strengthen social relations. This is also part of
communication.

The same sentence is used by different speakers on different occasions means (the meaning
of the speaker) different things. The meaning of the sentence and the meaning of the speaker
are equally important, but first consider the meaning of the sentence and aspects of meaning by
language system, rather than reflecting the will of the individual speaker in state of use on
certain occasions.

- Word meaning

Concept of definition, closely associated with general reference guide for meaning, (what
dictionary tells us about the meaning of each word). It also possible to create a new word. The
meaning of words and sentences in a language can be understood as competent speakers of
language. Native speakers of languages is the main source of information about meaning. A
language in general, has a number of different dialects. And also the pronunciation of languages
varies from one dialect to another. Use 'dialect' to show the various of languages.
- Theory

THEORY is a predetermined statement and definitions that are interconnected,

made from certain basic sources can be explained in that regard. Semantics is an attempt to
set up a theory of meaning. In the practice section below we illustrate some particular basic
facts about meaning, the kind of facts that a complete semantic theory must make sense of.
Semantic theory deals with semantic facts, facts about meaning, as in the true statement
above. In aiming to find several systems and patterns in various kinds special facts about the
meaning of words, sentences, and speech, obviously it is necessary to try to move away
from certain facts, such as as mentioned above, for generalization, namely statements about
the whole class of goods.

UNIT 2 SENTENCES, UTTERANCES, AND PROPOSITIONS

A. Utterance
- Utterance is a strech of talk or the use of a piece of language by a particular speaker on
additional occasion.
 An act of speech or writing
 Its specific event, particular time, and place
 At least one person, its usually more than one person
- Utterance can be a single word,single phrase, single sentence
- Utterance is written with quotation (“......”)
- Utterance is added by some signal or additional meaning (contextual meaning)
- Utterance involves and extra meaning because of circumates it occur, such as :
 Time & place
 People involved
 Background
 Relationship
 Know each other
- All the circumatances are called by physical context of an utterance.

B. Sentence
- Sentence is a string of words put together by grammatical rules of language and express a
complete thought.
- Sentence is not an event or physical object, its construction of word that so meaningful.
- Sentence is written with italic style.
- Sentence is begun with capital letter and ended by fullstop.

C. The function of distinguising between utterance and sentence

- To recognize what meaning are communicate

D. Proposition
- Proposition is how to distinguish the sentence whether one idea or not.
- Proposition is that part of the meaning of the utterance of a declarative sentence which
describes some state of affairs.
E. Conclusion
- Preposition is abstract and meaningful that expressed in different sentence
- Sentence can expressed in different utterance

UNIT 3 REFERENCE AND SENSE

A. Reference
- By means of reference, a speaker indicates which things in the world (including persons) are
being talked about.
- Ferdinand de Saussure says that the meaning of linguistic expression derives from two
sources :
 The language the words are part of
 The world the words describe
- Words stand in a relationship to the world
- The words (Linguistic Expression) allows us to identify part of the world, and make
statements about them
- The relationship by which language look into the wold is called reference.
- Reference deal with relationship between language and the world
- Relationship between a particular object in the world and language expressions used in
utterance
- The relationship between part of a language and thing outside the language
- From the reference speaker indicates which things in the world are being talked about.

B. Sense
- SENSE of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other
expressions in the language.
- Sense is the kind of meaning associated with the words and sentences by the language
system, and not the speaker meaning.
- Sense determines reference ; referents of words are identified through their sense

C. Reference and sense

- A word’s referent in the particular thing, person, place which an expression stands for an
occasion and changes each time the word is applied to a different object or situation in the
world
- A word’s sense doesn’t change every time the word takes on a new referent.
- Not direct as that between sense and proposition, but there is a similarity worth pointing
out.

D. Relationship between reference and sense

- Referent of an expression is a thing or person in the world.
- The sense of an expression is not a thing at all
- Every expression that has meaning has sense, but not every expression has referent.
2. From reference

UNIT 4 : REFERRING EXPRESSIONS

A. Referring expression
- Referring expression is an expression to refer to something or someone used with certain
references in mind
- The same expression can be a referring expression or not is depending on the
context.
- Referring expression used in an utterance to refer to something or someone

B. Opaque context
- OPAQUE CONTEXT is the part of the sentence that is complete sentences by adding
expressing expressions, with the addition of different reference expressions

C. Equative sentence
- Equative sentence is used to assert that two referring expressions have the same referent.
- A feature of many equative sentences is that the order of the two referring expressions can
be reversed without loss of acceptability

UNIT 5 : PREDICATES

A. Predicator
- Predicator of simple declarative sentences that make the most specific contribution to
the meaning of that sentence.
- The predicators in sentences can be parts of speech: adjectives, verbs, prepositions, and
nouns.

B. Predicate
- Predicate is any word (or sequence of words) which (in a given single sense) can function as
the predicator of a sentence.
- Predicate in the sentence can be more than one.
- The predicates of a language have a completely different function from the referring
expressions.
- Predicate has only one senses.
- The context in which we use words will clarify the understanding of what is in our minds.
- A predicate WAVE is a number that indicates an argument that is understood to have a
simple sentence.

C. Predicator and Predicate

- 'predicate' identifies elements in a language system, apart from certain sentence examples.
'predator' identifies the semantic role played by a certain words and sentences.
UNIT 6 PREDICATES, REFERRING EXPRESSIONS, AND UNIVERSE OF DISCOURSE

- The presence of a predicate in a referring expression helps the hearer to identify the
referent of a referring expression.
- A GENERIC SENTENCE is a sentence in which some statement is made about a whole
unrestricted class of individuals, as opposed to any particular individual.
- Language uses these expressions in many of the same ways as it uses the clear cases of
referring expressions.
- Language is used to talk about the real world, and about an infinite variety of abstractions
- UNIVERSE OF DISCOURSE for any utterance as the particular world, real that the speaker
assumes he is talking about at the time.
- The predicates embedded in a referring expression help the hearer to identify its referent.

3. To sense

UNIT 9 : SENSE PROPERTIES AND STEREOTYPES

- An ANALYTIC sentence is one that is necessarily TRUE, as a result of the senses of the words
in it. An analytic sentence, therefore, unspoken by speakers of the language about the
senses of the words in it.
- A SYNTHETIC sentence is one which is NOT analytic, but may be either true or false,
depending on the way the world is.
- A CONTRADICTION is a sentence that is necessarily FALSE, as a result of the senses of the
words in it. The opposite of an analytic sentence.
- Analytic sentences can be formed from contradictions, and vice versa, by insertion, if
necessary, from said negative particle does not.
- Imperative and interrogative sentences cannot be right or wrong, and they are cannot be
analytic or synthetic.
- Synthetic sentences have the potential to be informative in the real world, whereas analytic
sentences and contradictions are not.
- CONDITION REQUIRED in the case of a predicate is a condition that must be met in order to
meet the correct conditions as it is explained by that predicate.
- SET SUFFICIENT CONFITIONS in the sense of a predicate is a device that guarantees that the
title correctly describes it.
- Halaman 100_____________