Unit IV - CHILDREN AND YOUTH WITH SPECIAL EDUCATION

NEEDS

Introduction
All children, with or without disabilities are individuals with unique traits and
characteristics. They vary in their pace and preference in learning. They also vary in
terms of how they approach each challenge in learning, social interaction and many
other types of environment.

Module 7: Students with Mental Retardation

Introduction
This module presents the categories of children with special needs. The
characteristics, causes, and educational approaches are also discussed.

Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of this module, the students should be able
to:
1. enumerate and discuss the classification of mental retardation;
2. identify and explain the causes of mental retardation during the phases of prenatal
development, the birth process, infancy and early childhood;
3. name and describe the assessment procedures to screen and assess children with
mental retardation; and
4. enumerate and assess the educational approaches in teaching children and youth
with mental retardation.

Activity

Students watch video clips of children with mental retardation.

Analysis

1. How did you react during and after viewing the videos?
2. How should people treat these kind of children?
3. How would you help your students without disabilities accept, understand and
help these children?

Abstraction

Definition of Mental Retardation

“Mental retardation refers to substantial limitations in present functioning. It is

characterized by significantly sub-average intellectual functioning, existing concurrently
with related limitations in two or more of the following adaptive skills areas:
communication, self-care, home living, social skills, community use, self-direction, health
and safety, functional academics, leisure and work. Mental retardation manifests before
age 18.” (Heward, 2003)

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Classification of Mental Retardation (American Association on Mental Retardation)
1. mild MR with IQ scores from 55 to 70
2. moderate MR with IQ scores from 40 to 54
3. severe MR with IQ scores from 25 to 39, and
4. profound MR with IQ scores below 25.

The AAMR has introduced a new system of classification that is based on the amount of
support that the person needs in order to function to the highest possible level. The four
categories of mental retardation according to the intensity of needed supports are :
(Wehmeyer, 2002)

1. Intermittent supports are on “as needed” basis, that is, the person needs help only at
certain periods of time and not all the time. Support will most likely be required during
periods of transition, for example, moving from school to work.

2. Limited supports are required consistently, though not on a daily basis. The support
needed is of a non-intensive nature.

3. Extensive supports are needed on a regular basis; daily supports are required in
some environment, for example, daily home living tasks.
4. Pervasive supports are daily extensive supports, perhaps of a life-sustaining nature
required in multiple environments.

Early Signs of Mental Retardation in Preschool and Early Elementary Children

Young children with mild mental retardation may not be readily identified or may be
identified as having general developmental delays, whereas children with moderate
mental retardation typically exhibit significant delays across developmental areas.
Infants attain developmental milestones, such as turning over, sitting, and pulling to
stand, several months after the typical period of children without disabilities. In addition
to motor delays, young children with moderate mental retardation develop language and
self-help skills at a much slower rate. A student with moderate mental retardation who
enters school often has received early intervention services for several years. Early
intervention consists of a variety of services, such as infant stimulation and
developmental programs that provide parents with special assistance and show them
how to encourage their child’s development. As part of the program, an early
intervention specialist may work with the parents in a specific area of self-help skills,
such as feeding and dressing or demonstrating ways to increase language development.
Some early intervention specialist facilitates a toddler play group that encourages social
skills, language, and cognitive development.

The term developmental delay covers five areas of development. In the early
elementary grades, children with mental retardation still will be working on skills in these
areas, which other children have long since mastered. These domains include
 self-help skills such as toileting, dressing, working independently, and taking
responsibility for putting away materials after use;
 language development and using words to communicate;
 fine motor skills such as using scissors, markers, and crayons;

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  learning colors and shapes; and
 social skills such as taking turns and sharing

Causes of Mental Retardation

Mental retardation may result from one or more factors, such as chromosomal disorders,
societal problems, or difficulties during pregnancy and the birth process. Chromosomal
disorders may be genetic or may result from a random error during the embryo’s
development. In most cases, a screening test during pregnancy can identify a
chromosomal disorder such as Down syndrome. Problems during pregnancy, such as
the use of drugs and alcohol, can cause mental retardation. Prematurity, low birth
weight, brain damage, lack of oxygen, or environmental hazards also cause mental
retardation. More frequently than not, however, the cause of a student’s mental
retardation is unknown.

Assessment Procedures

In general, in the Philippines where the education system hardly provides for
clinicians like school psychologists or psychomtericians, initial assessment is done by
the classroom teacher in order to identify who among the regular students are in need of
special education. Initial assessment is done through teacher nomination. For school-
age children, teachers are an important source of information about their learning and
behavior attributes. A checklist of the learning and behavior characteristics of children
with special education needs is used. When a child manifests half or more than half of
the characteristics in the checklist, then the final assessment follows. Here, a guidance
counselor or special education teacher administers the appropriate assessment tools
developed by the Special Education Division of the Bureau of Elementary Education of
the Department of Education.

When a child is suspected to have a suspected to have a developmental

disability such as mental retardation a complete diagnosis of the condition is necessary.
A thorough assessment of the condition is critical in considering a child’s eligibility for
special educational services, and/or aid in planning the educational and other services
he/she and the family may need. The assessment process covers a more intensive
observation and evaluation of the child’s cognitive and adaptive skills, analysis of
medical history especially of the mother’s condition during pregnancy and other
circumstances related to causative factors and the child’s current level of functioning.
The use of more than one assessment procedure provides a wealth of information about
the child permitting the evaluation of the biological, cognitive, social, and interpersonal
variables that affect the child’s current behavior.

In the diagnostic assessment of children, parents and other significant individuals

in the child’s environment provide a rich source of information. The components of
assessment, informal and standardized tests, home visits, interview and observation
complement each other and from a firm foundation for making correct decisions about
the child. Certainly, major discrepancies among the findings obtained from the various
assessment procedures must be resolved before any diagnostic decisions or
recommendations are made. For example, if the intelligence test results indicate that the
child is currently functioning in the sub-average range, while the interview data and the
adaptive behavior characteristics suggest average functioning, it is necessary to
reconcile these disparate findings before making a diagnosis. An evaluation report that
provides information relevant to instruction and other services is useful to both teachers

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and parents. The inclusion of families in the management of their children’s education
presents new challenges. Nevertheless, their participation in arriving at important
decisions about the children will ultimately be rewarding and beneficial to all the
members of the team.

Teaching Methods/Strategies for Mental Retardation in Inclusion

Methods of Instruction
Teaching children with mental retardation requires explicit and systematic
instruction. One such method of teaching is the Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA)
which is derived from the theory and principles of behavior modification and the effect of
the environment on the learning process.

Task analysis is the process of breaking down complex or multiple skills into
smaller, easier-to-learn subtasks. Direct and frequent measurement of the increments of
learning is done to keep track of the effects of instruction and to introduce needed
changes whenever necessary. Active Student Response (ASR) or the observable
response made to an instructional antecedent is correlated to student achievement.
Systematic feedback through positive reinforcement is employed whenever needed by
rewarding the student’s correct responses with simple positive comments, gestures or
facial expressions. Meanwhile incorrect responses are immediately corrected (error
correct technique) by asking the student to repeat the correct responses after the
teacher.

The application of learned skills in the natural environment is emphasized in the

Transfer of Stimulus Control method of instruction. Correct responses are rewarded
through positive reinforcement. Conversely, generalization and maintenance of learned
skills or the extent to which students can apply correctly what they have learned across
settings and over time are measured and recorded.

Educational Placement Alternatives

In the past, children with mental retardation were usually place in self-contained
classes. The special curriculum emphasized the communication arts, mathematics, self-
help skills, social and recreational skills, motor skills, and prevocational and vocational
skills. Through this traditional approach is still relatively common, increasingly, students
with mental retardation are now include in mainstream schools and even regular
classes. This is particularly the case for those with mild to moderate retardation.
Typically, these students receive their special education in either a resource room,
where they work with a special education teacher one-to-one or in a small group, or in
the regular classroom where the special education teacher works with them. In this
model, the amount of time students spend outside the regular classroom depends on
their individual needs. Thus, some may spend nearly the entire day in the regular
classroom while others may be there for less than an hour.

Students with Mental Retardation in Inclusive Education

At present, many children with mild and moderate mental retardation are enrolled
in the regular classroom. They are mainstreamed in the academic subjects under the
tutelage of the regular teacher and the special education teacher. The special education
teacher provides individualized instruction on the school subjects and tasks

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recommended by the regular teachers and directs family members to help with
assignments and class projects.

When students with mild or moderate mental retardation are enrolled in regular
classes, the regular teacher and the special education teacher work together to help the
child attain the goals and objectives set for the school year. The educational placement
is called inclusive education because the regular class has a student with a disability
who has been assessed to be capable of learning side by side with normal students. The
Individual Education Plan (IEP) is prepared by the teachers and parents to identify and
indicate the goals for the school year and the objectives and activities during the four
quarters of grading periods for successful inclusive education. The child attends the
regular class and receives tutorial lessons from the special education teacher. Family
members are encouraged to help the child with assignments and class requirements.

Mainstreaming activities for children with the more severe forms of mental
retardation are more selective. They participate in social activities, sports and co-
curricular activities like Special Olympics, camping, scouting and interest clubs. Often,
the goals for students who need more extensive supports are more social and
behavioral than academic in nature. The activities center on peer interaction, improving
social skills, and helping non-disabled students become more comfortable when
interacting with persons with disabilities.

To teachers faced with the challenge of providing an optimal educational

experience for those with mental retardation, the justification for the students’ presence
in the classrooms is of little consequence. Rather, their concerns focus on the practical
matter of how best to teach them. Fortunately, there is a growing body of knowledge
regarding appropriate techniques for students with disabilities in regular classroom
settings.

Suggestions for SPED teaches and the regular teachers working with mainstreamed
children with mental retardation

 Together, study the student’s IEP and agree on the teachers’ roles and
responsibilities to make inclusive education and mainstreaming work.
 Set regular meetings with teacher other, with the students or their families to
assess how effective the program is going and what else needs to be done.
 Encourage acceptance of the student by the classmates by setting an example
and giving the student the chance to show that he or she is more like the others
than different.
 Use instructional procedures that will be of benefit to the student, such as
demonstrating the more complex and difficult tasks, and providing multiple
opportunities for practice.
 When teaching abstract concepts, provide multiple concrete examples
 Supplement verbal instructions with demonstrations whenever possible.
 Assign a peer tutor to assist the student during independent activities.
 Vary the tasks in drills and practice activities.
 Encourage the use of computer-based tutorial and other appropriate computer-
based materials.
 In class lectures, utilize the lecture-pause technique.

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  Have a volunteer tape-record reading assignments if the student is unable to
read.
 Use cooperative learning strategies involving heterogeneous groups of students.
 Use multilayered activities involving flexible learning objectives to accommodate
the needs of students with diverse abilities.
 Pair students with mental retardation with non-disabled classmates who have
similar interests.
 Encourage regular students to assist the students with mental retardation as they
participate in class activities.

Regardless of a person’s level of functioning, transition services will be an

important part of his or her special education program particularly at the high school
level. These services provide the bridge to life after school and help the individual in both
community adjustment and employment. Typically staffed by full-time, transitions
specialists, these programs not only provide vocational training, but also focus on issues
such as job responsibility, social interactions, and home and community living skills.

Other Teaching strategies

It is important to know that despite difficulties in a learning environment students with

intellectual disability can and do have the capacity to acquire and use new information.
There is a range of inclusive teaching strategies that can assist all students to learn but
there are some specific strategies that are useful in teaching a group which includes
students with intellectual disability:

 Provide an outline of what will be taught - highlight key concepts and provide
opportunities to practice new skills and concepts.
 Provide reading lists well before the start of a course so that reading can begin
early.
 Consider tailoring reading lists and provide guidance to key texts. Allow work to
be completed on an in-depth study of a few texts rather than a broad study of
many.
 Whenever you are introducing procedures or processes or giving directions, for
example in a laboratory or computing exercise, ensure that stages or sequences
are made clear and are explained in verbal as well as written form.
 Students may benefit from using assistive technology.
 Use as many verbal descriptions as possible to supplement material presented
on blackboard or overhead
 Use clear, succinct, straightforward language.
 Reinforce learning by using real-life examples and environments.
 Present information in a range of formats – handouts, worksheets, overheads,
videos – to meet a diversity of learning styles.
 Use a variety of teaching methods so that students are not constrained by
needing to acquire information by reading only. Where possible, present material
diagrammatically - in lists, flow charts, concept maps etc.
 Keep diagrams uncluttered and use color wherever appropriate to distinguish
and highlight.
 Ensure that lists of technical/professional jargon which students will need to learn
are available early in the course.

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  Recording lectures will assist those students who have handwriting or
coordination problems and those who write slowly as well as those who have a
tendency to mishear or misquote.
 Students will be more likely to follow correctly the sequence of material in a
lecture if they are able to listen to the material more than once.
 Wherever possible, ensure that key statements and instructions are repeated or
highlighted in some way.
 One-to-one tutoring in subjects may be important; this can include peer tutoring.
 Students may benefit from having oral rather than written feedback on their
written assignments.
 It may be helpful for students with intellectual disability to have an individual
orientation to laboratory equipment or computers to minimize anxiety.

Assessment strategies

Students with intellectual disability may need particular adjustments to assessment

tasks. Once you have a clear picture of how the disability impacts on learning, you can
consider alternative assessment strategies. In considering alternative forms of
assessment, equal opportunity is not a guaranteed outcome, it is the objective. You are
not expected to lower standards to accommodate students with disability but rather are
required to give them a reasonable opportunity to demonstrate what they have learned:

 Allow extensions to assignment deadlines

 Use technology to record students work, e.g. digital photography, tape and video.
 Students may take longer to organize thoughts and sequence material. They will
benefit from discussing their outlines, with particular attention being paid to
appropriate relationships and connections between points.
 Encourage the student to submit an early draft of assignments to allow the
opportunity for feedback to the student as a formative process.
 Students with an intellectual disability will need extra time in an examination for
reading and analyzing questions and for planning their answers. Some students
will request that examination questions be read to them. Some students may
prefer to dictate their answers to a scribe. They will need a venue which is quiet
and distraction-free.
 Keep short your written examination instructions and sentences within
examination questions. Questions using bullet points, lists or distinct parts are
more likely to be correctly interpreted.
 Because students with intellectual disability find it difficult to read multiple choice
questions in a way that allows them to appreciate subtle changes in the
arrangement of words, short answer questions will be a better test of their
knowledge.
 Students may benefit from an exam timetable that features a number of days
between exams to assist in exam preparation.
 Many students with intellectual disability are chronic misspellers and use
dictionaries only with great difficulty.

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 Application

Small-group Discussion

Answer the following questions:

1. In what ways are the classifications of mental retardation different from each
other?

2. What do the causes of mental retardation imply to you?

3. How would you know that a child has mental retardation?

4. Do you favor inclusive education for students with disabilities? Explain your
stand on the issue.

5. Assess the given teaching strategies discussed. Identify which are already
used in the regular class and which are new to you and which ones require more skills.

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Module 8: Students with Learning Disabilities

This module introduces the common specific learning disabilities – their causes,
characteristics/signs, and teaching strategies.

Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of this module, the students should be able to:

1. determine the specific learning disabilities through their characteristics

2. demonstrate teaching strategies in dealing with children with specific learning
disabilities

Activity
Spelling Bee

Analysis

1. Look at your scores. Are you satisfied?

2. What do you think is the problem?
3. How are you going to deal with the problem?

Abstraction

What are learning disabilities?

The term learning disabilities was introduced in 1963 by Dr. Samuel Kirk, a well-
known American special education special education expert. More than any other area
of special education, the area on learning disabilities has sparked misunderstanding and
confusion, disagreement and controversy among professionals, parents and the general
public.

In the Philippines, special education for children with learning disabilities is only
in its early years of implementation. Unlike the special education programs for children
with mental retardation, giftedness and talent, visual and hearing impairment and
behavior problems that date back to the 1950’s, there are very few schools all over the
country that have started to offer programs for children with learning disabilities.

Children with learning disabilities have relatively average or even above average
intelligence who experience severe learning or academic problems in school.
The American National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities (NJCLD) which
is composed of several professional organizations issued the following definition in 1989:

“Learning disabilities is a generic term that refers to a heterogeneous group of

disorders manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening,
speaking, reading, writing, reasoning or mathematical abilities. These disorders are
intrinsic to the individual and presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunction.
Learning disabilities may appear across the life span. Problems in self-regulatory
behavior, social perception and social interaction may exist in learning disabilities but do
not themselves constitute a learning disability.

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 Although learning disabilities may occur concomitantly with other handicapping
conditions, for example, blindness, deafness, serious emotional disturbance, or with
extrinsic influences such as cultural differences, insufficient or inappropriate instruction,
learning disabilities is not the result of these conditions.”

The Genetic Factors in Learning Disabilities

Learning disabilities constitutes a heterogeneous set of conditions with no single

syndrome or a single cause or etiology. Thus far, research findings cite two genetic
causes of learning disabilities. These are brain damage and biochemical imbalance.

1. Brain Damage

An increasing consensus attributes learning disabilities to neurological

dysfunction or central nervous system pathology. The models on the causes of learning
disabilities state that the condition can be:

a. hereditary, indicating the presence in the genetic make up of certain inherited

diseases or disorders that damage the brain.

b. innate, resulting from biological influences during the period of conception or

pregnancy.

c. congenital or constitutional, indicating that biological influence may have

originated during the process of gestation or development in the prenatal (before birth),
perinatal (during birth), or postnatal (after birth) periods of development.

In recent years, neurologists and other professionals use advance technology to

assess brain activities more accurately. Some of the new procedures are:

a. electroencephalogram or EEG. This is a graphic measure and recording of

the brain’s electrical impulses. The EEG is a digitally computerized recording and
analysis of the brain waves. Many students with learning disabilities have abnormal brain
waves as shown by the encephalograph that records the brain’s electrical impulses.

b. computerized tomographic scan or CT. This is a neuroimaging technique

whereby X-rays of the brain are compiled by a computer to produce an overall picture of
the brain. The CT scans enable the neurologist to look at the underlying physiology or
physical condition of the brain.

c. magnetic resonance imaging or MRI. This is a neuroimaging technique

whereby radio waves are used to produce cross-sectional images of the brain. CT scans
and MRI results show that the brains of those with learning disabilities suffered from a
disruption in the development of the neural cells during the early months of pregnancy.
This means that the neurons in the brain area did not develop normally.

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2. Biochemical Imbalance

Some researchers claim that biochemical disturbances in a child’s body cause

learning disabilities. A study in 1975 (Feingold) suggested that artificial food colors,
flavors, preservatives, salicylates and megavitamins in many of the foods that children
eat can cause learning disabilities and hyperactivity. But a comprehensive review of diet
related studies concluded that very little pieces of evidence supported the statement. So,
although it is possible, or even probable that biochemistry may affect a child’s behavior
and learning in the classroom, no scientific evidence exists today to reveal the nature or
extent of that influence.

3. Environmental Factors

Three types of environmental influences believed to be related to children’s

learning problems: (Lovitt, 1978)

1. emotional disturbance. Many children with learning problems have

behavioral disorders as well. Whether one causes the other or whether both are caused
by some other factors remains uncertain.

2. lack of motivation. It is difficulty to identify reinforcing activities for some

students with learning disabilities. It is possible that they may not simply be interested in
any of the things that other children like.

3. poor instruction. Although children are able to learn in spite of poor teaching
and inadequate strategies, other children are less fortunate. Some of them who have
experiences poor instruction in the early grades are not able to catch up with their peers.

Dyslexia

Dyslexia is a neurologically-based, often familiar disorder which interferes with the

acquisition and processing of language. Varying in degrees of severity, it is manifested
by difficulties in receptive language, including phonological processing, in reading,
writing, spelling, handwriting and sometimes in arithmetic.

Positives of dyslexia

Many people with dyslexia are successful in their careers because of their differences
and strengths. As teachers you need to celebreate their unique abilities and promote
self-believ. Pupils with dyslexia simply have different learning preferences. It is
necessary to acknowledge their strengths and utilize them to scafforld their learning.

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Case Study

My dyslexia

By Adam George Best

After many years struggling through the education system regardless of numerous
concers being raised by my parents, I was finally diagnosed with dyslexia following a full
screeing by an educational psychologist in higher education. This was met with mixed
emotions. Although there was some relief that there was a reason for my difficulties in
spelling, writing and reading (speed, there was increasing frustration and distress. It was
difficult to come to terms with this new ‘label’, especially after being told that my
difficulties were definitely not dyslexia related (in my secondary school). A subsequent
concern was that as this diagnosis came within my firt year at the University of
Sunderland, I wondered if I was going to be able to keep up with the academic demands
of higher education. Ultimately, there was an overall feeling that my ability was capped,
that this dyslexia would stop me from reaching my dream of becoming a primary school
teacher.

However, thanks to the ongoing support from family, friends and the University I
overcame the immediate shock and was able to recognize that nothing had changed. I
was still the same person; my difficulties had just been given a name. This diagnosis
opened doors to a wide range of support, including extra time in assessments,
computerizes software (supporting reading, information processing and organization)
and scheduled one-to-one sessions with a specialist trained to support me with the
academics at the University. Although it was clear that university was going to be
difficult, I am not one to shy away from a challenge; I had worked hard to get to the level
I was at, and certainly wasn’t going to give up.

I am becoming more comfortable in discussing my dyslexia with others,

recognizing that there are some people who see it as a disadvantage, especially in
pursuing my career in teaching. However, I recognize that I am more equipped than
others to identify and support pupils who are finding learning difficult, who are regularly
upset and who feel they are never going to understand something. I am determined to
become a teacher. Although at times I am frustrated by my dyslexia, I know that it has
made me the dedicated, motivated person I am today and I would never change that.

What are the indicators and how are pupils assessed for dyslexia?

Early identification is crucial, and to be able to do this you need to be aware of the
indicators. In the early years you need to identify at-risk indicators and strengths of
individual pupils. Dyslexia is an accumulation of several areas of difficulties.

Some signs which may indicate dyslexia in young children

 Inability to crawl
 Difficulty learning nursery rhymes

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  Inability to recognize rhyming worlds
 May have had early signs of language difficulties and pronunciation of sounds
 Muddles words and sounds, for example ‘tar’ for ‘car’ and ‘beddie tear’ instead of
‘teddy bear’.
 Shows no interest in letters and words but enjoys being read to
 Difficulties in sequencing, for example, dressing, colour sequences, instructions
and alphabet recall

The indicators for dyslexia in older children

One of the indicators in older children could be continuous reversal of letters, for
example ‘b’ and ‘d’. This alone does not mean the child is dyslexic, you need to observe
what other areas of difficulty the pupil is experiencing.

Some difficulties which could indicate dyslexia in older children

 Confusion with directional language

 Gross and fine motor skill difficulties
 Continued difficulty in learning to read, write, spell and recall times tables.
 Poor concentration and appearing to be lacking in motivation
 Frustration and anxiety and a lack of confidence in reading, writing, spelling and
possibly mental mathematics.
 Disorganisation and forgetfulness; for example, following a timetable,
remembering homework and equipment for particular lessons
 Length of time to complete a task or respond to questions due to a difficulty in
processing and retaining instructions
 Adopting strategies such as inappropriate behavior to avoid certain aspects of
lessons which they fin extremely challenging.

Making your classroom dyslexia friendly

Colour Coding

 The teacher/pupil highlights key words (use acetate over text to protect if using a
book).
 Regular use of coloured highlighter pens can be beneficial (preferably allow the
pupil to select the colour). Examples of how this might be used are : a different
colour for adjectives/nouns/verbs
 For those pupils who do not understand sentence structure color coding can be
used to highlight the capital letter and the full stop. As pupils learn more about
sentence structure and punctuation color coding can be used for speech marks,
question marks, commas and colons.
 When proof reading the pupil can highlight words which he/she considers are
incorrectly spelled. Please remember to limit the number of words you ask them
to highlight to protect their self-esteem.

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  When learning spellings pupils can choose to highlight the part of the word they
know or the part they need to learn.
 Color code key words for different subject areas, for example labeling all science
equipment the same color.
 Provide a color coded timetable for different subjects.

The particular needs of pupils with dyspraxia

The word dyspraxia comes from ‘dys’, meaning difficulty, and ‘praxis’, indicating the
ability to use the body as a skilled tool. Dyspraxia is usually described as a
developmental dyspraxia, motor learning difficulty, developmental co-ordination disorder
or percepto-motor dysfunction. This tells us that dyspraxia is difficulty with movement
and co-ordination and carrying out tasks. It has a detrimental impact on both fine motor
skills (such as picking up a small object and handwriting) and gross motor skills (running,
jumping and hopping), and in some cases it can affect speech. The exact causes are still
unknown; dyspraxia is believed to be due to a disruption in the way messages from the
brain are transmitted to the body.

Common Signs of Dyspraxia

 Not achieving expected developmental milestones, particularly in sitting,

standing, crawling, walking and talking, in comparison to other children of the
same age
 Has difficulty dressing and undressing
 Poor short-term memory
 Falls over frequently and has difficulty with stairs
 Unable to hop, jump, skip, run, dance and kick a ball
 Difficulties following and remembering instructions
 Dyspraxia can impact on eye movement and therefore impacts on the ability to
read

Ways to provide support for pupils with dyspraxia

 Provide a plan of the school to support them in navigating the school premises.
 Advise parents to purchase clothes without buttons or laces as this can cause
unnecessary anxiety when they have to dress/undress in given time.
 For handwriting exercises use multi-sensory approaches to letter formation, in
sand, air writing, scribing on the pupil’s back, stenciling and pencil/pen grips.
 Practise gross and fine motor skills through wobble boards, pegging items onto a
washing line, throwing and catching a range of objects in different sizes such as
balloons, tennis balls, large foam balls and bean bags.
 Don’t overfill cups as the drink will likely to spill.
 Encourage the playing of sports to develop co-ordination skills and confidence.

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The particular needs of pupils with dyscalculia

The word dyscalculia comes from ‘dys’, meaning difficulty, and ‘calculia’, from
calculate. Pupils with dyscalculia have a specific difficulty with mathematics an often are
unable to acquire the basic concepts that underpin the skills necessary for performing
mathematical procedures. This can impact on very simple activities, such as counting
and comparing small numbers. They may be unable to visualize numbers or see
relationships between numbers. Other difficulties are counting groups of numbers,
recalling times tables or facts and using strategies for basic calculations. Pupils with
dyscalculia will often have difficulties with working memory, so during timed
assessments they are likely to become particularly stressed.

Common signs of dyscalculia

 Slower responses to number problems than pupils of the same age

 Failing to understand the basic concepts of number
 Counting on fingers and an inability to recognize small numbers without counting
 Difficulty in counting dots in array.
 Difficulty in visualizing
 Inability to tell the time form an analogue clock
 Forgetting previously understood procedures quickly
 Being poor at estimations tasks, will often count one by one in counting tasks
 Difficulty with estimating time, knowing what time to leave to get to school on
time
 Avoidance of tasks and games which involve calculations

How to support a pupil with dyscalculia in school

 Ensure that they have a good view of the board and that distractions are
minimized, such as noises from other classrooms or outside.
 Recap prior learning as it is likely they will have short-term memory difficulties.
 Target their areas of weakness, focus on multi-sensory learning approaches.
 Have a variety of choices of pencil sizes and grips.
 Use a visual timetable to show the structure of the day.
 Remind them of tasks part way through a lesson.
 Support pupils during tests and assessments, allowing additional time for working
out.
 Don’t ask them to solve mathematical problems in front of the rest of the class.
 Praise all achievements and look for signs of anxiety.

What Is Dysgraphia?

 Dysgraphia is a learning disability that affects handwriting and fine motor skills.
 It interferes with spelling, word spacing, and the general ability to put thoughts on
paper.

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  It makes the process of writing laboriously slow, and the written product difficult
to read.
 An estimated 20-60% of children with ADHD also have one or more learning
disabilities like dysgraphia.

When the act of forming letters requires so much effort that a child forgets what he
wanted to say in the first place, it’s not surprising that children with dysgraphia often hate
to write, and resist doing so. If you suspect that your child (or yourself) has symptoms of
dysgraphia, take these tests:

What Are the Symptoms of Dysgraphia?

Dysgraphia is usually identified when a child learns to write, but it can remain hidden
until adulthood, particularly in mild cases. Those with dysgraphia occasionally have
trouble with other fine motor skills, like tying their shoes — but not always. In elementary
school settings, it’s estimated that approximately 4 percent of children suffer from
dysgraphia. By middle school — when the complexity of written assignments starts to
increase dramatically — estimates can get as high as 20 percent. Common indicators of
dysgraphia, at any age, include:

 Trouble forming letters or spacing words consistently

 Awkward or painful grip on a pencil
 Difficulty following a line or staying within margins
 Trouble with sentence structure or following rules of grammar when writing, but
not when speaking
 Difficulty organizing or articulating thoughts on paper
 Pronounced difference between spoken and written understanding of a topic
What Is the Treatment for Dysgraphia?

If your child is diagnosed with dysgraphia, meet with the school’s evaluation team to
request services or support. Reducing the emphasis on writing and/or the required daily
amount of writing allows most children with dysgraphia to work successfully in school.

Uninformed teachers have been known to tell students with dysgraphia to “just practice”
by writing more often and focusing more intently on what they want to say. But more
practice is often not what kids with dysgraphia need to improve their writing; rather, they
need the right practice — both at school and at home. This often involves letter-
formation drills, fixing incorrect grips on pencils or pens, and using handwriting-specific
training programs.

Adults who lived with undiagnosed dysgraphia for years have likely learned to avoid
writing as much as possible in their daily life — a pursuit that gets easier every day in
our increasingly computer-based society. If writing is still a concern for you, however,
you can request accommodations at work — like being allowed to type notes during
meetings or making use of speech-to-text technology — that can take the focus off
handwriting and make day-to-day tasks easier to handle.

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Children and adults alike may also benefit from working with an occupational therapist
on letter formation, fine-motor skills, and cursive writing, which can be easier than
printing.

Causes of Learning Disabilities

The causes of learning disabilities are attributed to genetic and environmental

factors. Over the years, genetic researches show that learning disabilities tend to run in
families and heredity is a possible cause. Studies of identical or monozygotic twins,
where one fertilized egg cell splits and develops into two separate embryos, show that
when one twin has a reading disability, the other twin is more likely also to have a
reading disability. Identical twins possess the same physical and mental traits. However,
research shows that this is not true in the case of fraternal or dizygotic twins where two
egg cells are fertilized and develop into two distinct embryos. Fraternal twins carry
different physical and mental traits.

Teaching Strategies
There is a range of inclusive teaching strategies that can assist all students to learn but
there are some specific strategies that are useful in teaching a group which includes
students with learning disability:

 Provide reading lists well before the start of a course so that reading can begin
early. Consider tailoring reading lists and providing guidance to key texts. Allow
work to be completed on an in-depth study of a few texts rather than a broad
study of many.
 Whenever you are introducing procedures or processes or giving directions, for
example in a laboratory or computing exercise, ensure that stages or sequences
are made clear and are explained in verbal as well as written form.
 Students may benefit from using assistive technology.
 Use as many verbal descriptions as possible to supplement material presented
on blackboard or overhead. Students with a learning disability often have a
marked preference for an auditory mode of learning.
 Present information in a range of formats – handouts, worksheets, overheads,
videos – to meet a diversity of learning styles.
 Use a variety of teaching methods so that students are not constrained by
needing to acquire information by reading only. Where possible, present material
diagrammatically - in lists, flow charts, concept maps etc.
 Keep diagrams uncluttered and use colour wherever appropriate to distinguish
and highlight.
 Ensure that lists of technical/professional jargon which students will need to learn
are available early in the course.
 Recording lectures will assist those students who have handwriting or
coordination problems and those who write slowly as well as those who have a
tendency to mishear or misquote.
 Students will be more likely to follow correctly the sequence of material in a
lecture if they are able to listen to the material more than once.
 Repetition is important for students with a learning disability. Wherever possible,
ensure that key statements and instructions are repeated or highlighted in some
way.

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  Students with a learning disability will benefit from discussion on time
management and organization issues. Such discussions can be built into tutorial
activities.
 Extra tutoring in subjects where processes and sequences are important may be
desirable.
 Students with learning disability may benefit from having oral rather than written
feedback on their written assignments.
 Do not make students over-anxious about making mistakes, asking questions,
getting through the work or meeting learning goals.
 It may be helpful for students with a learning disability to have an individual
orientation to laboratory equipment or computers to minimize anxiety.

Assessment Strategies

Students with learning disabilities may need particular adjustments to assessment tasks.
Once you have a clear picture of how the disability impacts on learning, you can
consider alternative assessment strategies.

In considering alternative forms of assessment, equal opportunity is not a guaranteed

outcome, it is the objective. You are not expected to lower standards to accommodate
students with a disability but rather are required to give them a reasonable opportunity to
demonstrate what they have learned.

Students with learning disability may need particular adjustments to assessment tasks.
Once you have a clear picture of how the disability impacts on performance, you can
consider alternative assessment strategies:

 Allow extensions to assignment deadlines if extensive reading has been set.

 Students with learning disability may take longer to organize thoughts and
sequence material. In drafting an essay some students will write, read on to tape,
listen and then correct. This all takes time. Students will benefit from discussing
their outlines with particular attention being paid to appropriate relationships and
connections between points.
 Encourage the student to submit an early draft of assignments to allow the
opportunity for feedback to the student as a formative process.
 Students with learning disability will need extra time in an examination for reading
and analyzing questions, and for planning their answers. Some students will
request that examination questions be read to them. Some students may prefer
to dictate their answers to a scribe. They will need a venue which is quiet and
distraction-free.
 Many students with a learning disability will prefer oral assessment to written.
Allow students to read written examination responses aloud and correct as they
read. Some students need to hear what they have written in order to determine
whether they have written what they intended. An oral examination is not an easy
option for students. Give the same time for an oral examination as for a written
exam but allow extra time for the student to listen to and refine or edit taped
responses. In your assessment, allowance should be made for the fact that
spoken answers are likely to be less coherent than written answers.

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  Keep short your written examination instructions and sentences within
examination questions. Questions using bullet points, lists or distinct parts are
more likely to be correctly interpreted.
 Because students with learning disability find it difficult to read multiple-choice
questions in a way that allows them to appreciate subtle changes in the
arrangement of words, short-answer questions will be a better test of their
knowledge.
 Many students with learning disability are chronic misspellers and use
dictionaries only with great difficulty. Allow students to use a word processor in
examinations so that they have access to a spell-checker.

Application

Choose 1-2 strategies in teaching children with specific learning disabilities.

Present a brief demonstration on how you implement them to your children in an
inclusive classroom.

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Module 9: Students who are Gifted and Talented

Introduction

This module discusses the characteristics of gifted and talented children and
youth. Teaching and assessment strategies are also presented and explored.

Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of this module, the students should be able
to:

a. discuss the identification and assessment of the gifted and talented

b. demonstrate differentiation in an inclusive classroom

Activity
Students watch videos of gifted/talented children.

Analysis

1. How do the these children in the video amaze you?

2. Did you ever think/imagine if you were like them?
3. Do you think these children need very intelligent teachers too? Why?

Abstraction

Characteristics of Gifted and Talented Children and Youth

Highly gifted students, according to Silverman’s studies (1995) have IQ scores 3

standard deviations or greater above the mean. The IQ score is greater than 145, or 35
to 55 points more or even higher than the average IQ scores of 90 to 110. Among
American children, there is only 1 child in 1,000 or 1 child in 10,000. Silverman found the
following characteristics among these highly gifted individuals:
 Intense intellectual curiosity
 Fascination with words and ideas
 Perfectionism
 Need for precision
 Learning in great intuitive leaps
 Intense need for mental stimulation
 Difficulty conforming to the thinking of others
 Early moral and existential concern
 Tendency toward introversion
There are times when the characteristics of gifted and talented persons are
misinterpreted as bordering on abnormal behavior, aggressiveness, antisocial behavior,
and the like.

Shaklee (1989, cited in Heward, 2003) listed the identifiers of young gifted and
talented children as follows:

 Exceptional learner in the acquisition and retention of knowledge:

a. exceptional memory

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 b. learns quickly and easily
c. advanced understanding/meaning of area

 Exceptional user of knowledge in the application and comprehension of

knowledge
a. exceptional use of knowledge
b. advanced use of symbol systems - expressive and complex
c. demands a reason for unexplained events
d. reasons well in problem-solving - draws from previous knowledge and
transfers it to other areas
 Exceptional generator of knowledge- individual and creative attributes
a. highly creative behavior in areas of interest and talent
b. does not conform to typical ways of thinking, perceiving
c. enjoys self-expression of ideas, feelings or beliefs
d. keen sense of humor that reflects advanced, unusual comprehension of
relationships and meaning
e. highly developed curiosity about cause, future, the unknown

 Exceptional motivation -individual motivational attributes

a. perfectionism: striving to achieve high standards, especially in areas of
talent and interest
b. shows initiative, self-directed
c. high level of inquiry and reflection
d. long attention span when motivated
e. leadership - desire and ability to lead
f. intense desire to know

Creativity as the Highest Expression of Giftedness

Creative ability is considered as central to the definition of giftedness. Clark

(1986) refers to creativity as the highest expression of giftedness. Sternberg (1988)
suggests that creative, insightful individuals are those who make discoveries and devise
the inventions that ultimately change society.

There is no accepted definition of creativity. In his studies on creativity, Guilford

(1988) enumerates the following dimensions of creative behavior:
 Fluency – the creative person is capable of producing many ideas per unit of
time.
 Flexibility – a wide variety of ideas, unusual ideas, and alternative solutions are
offered.
 Novelty/originality – low probability, unique words, and responses are used; the
creative person has novel ideas.
 Elaboration - the ability to provide details is evidenced.
 Synthesizing ability - the person has the ability to put unlikely ideas together
 Analyzing ability - the person has the ability to organize ideas into larger,
inclusive patterns. Symbolic structures must often be broken down before they
can be reformed into new ones.
 Ability to reorganize or redefine existing ideas - the ability to transform an
existing object into one of different design, function, or use is evident

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  Complexity - the ability to manipulate many interrelated ideas at the same time
is shown.

Assessment of Gifted and Talented Children

1. Pre-referral intervention
Exceptional children are identified as early as possible. Teachers are asked to
nominate students who may possess the characteristics of giftedness and talent through
the use of a Teacher Nomination Form.

2. Multifactored evaluation
Information is gathered from a variety of sources using the following materials:
 Group and individual intelligence tests
 Performance in the school-based achievement tests
 Permanent records, performance in previous grades, awards received
 Portfolios of student work
 Parent, peer, self-nomination

Differentiated Curriculum and Instructional Systems

The skills in the Basic Elementary Curriculum of the Department of Education are
intended for average learners and lack the competencies that match the learning
characteristics of high-ability students. A study of American gifted and talented students
found that 60% of all grade four students in a school district have already mastered
much of the content of the content of the curriculum. Majority of the students scored 80%
in a pretest in mathematics even before the school year began. A differentiated
curriculum that is modified in depth and pace is used in special education programs for
gifted and talented students.
Curriculum compacting is the method of modifying the regular curriculum for
certain grade levels by compressing the content and skills that high-ability students are
capable of learning in a shorter period of time.
Enrichment of the regular curriculum allows the students to study the content at a
greater depth both in the horizontal and vertical directions employing higher order
thinking skills. The differentiated curriculum goes beyond the so-called “basic learning
competencies” and allows the students access to advanced topics of interest to them.
Meanwhile, acceleration modifies the pace or length of time at which the students gain
the skills and competencies in the regular curriculum to accommodate the enrichment
process.
Horizontal enrichment adds more content and increases the learning areas not
found in the regular curriculum for the grade level. The students go beyond the grade
requirements and move on to study the subjects in the higher grades. For example,
mathematics subjects like Algebra or Geometry that are partly included in the regular
curriculum, or, advanced subjects like Trigonometry and Calculus may be included in the
differentiated curriculum. Science, English and Filipino are enriched by expanding the
content covered in the same manner.
Vertical enrichment allows the students to engage in independent study,
experimentation and investigation of topics that interest them. Social Studies and
Makabayan subjects lend themselves well to vertical enrichment activities that will give
thigh-ability students opportunities to share their ideas in solving related problems at
home, the school and the community.

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 Most of the special education classes in the different regions of the country utilize
the self-contained class. High-ability students are enrolled in a special class that is
taught by a trained special education teacher. Mainstreaming activities are arranged so
that the students can socialize with their peers, share their knowledge and assist in peer
mentoring the slow learners.

Application

Present differentiated instruction in an inclusive classroom that has gifted and

talented children/youth.

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Module 10: Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

Introduction

This module discusses the characteristics of students with emotional and

behavioral disorders. Its causes are tackled; identification and assessment are
presented. Ways in creating a positive classroom environment in order to minimize
antisocial behavior are explored.

Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of this module, the students should be able to:

1. discuss the condition of students with emotional and behavioral disorders;

2. plan intervention for emotional and behavior disorders; and
3. present a scenario that supports positive learning environment for students
with emotional and behavioral disorders

Activity
Students watch a video clip on a scenario that will lead to developing emotional
and behavioral disorder.

Analysis

1. How does the incident affect the child’s emotional and behavioral condition?
2. What does the video tell you as future parent? teacher?

Abstraction

Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

Because emotions and behavior affect each other and are so closely intertwined,
disorders of these areas are usually discussed together. Although a few of these
disorders can appear in early adulthood or later, many appear in childhood and
adolescence. Some are more common than others, and conditions can range from mild
to severe. Often, a person has more than one disorder. Nearly all of these disorders can
seriously affect memory in children and adolescents, especially verbal memory
(Gunther, Holtkamp, Jolles, Herpertz-Dahlmann,Konrad, 2004).

IDEA, the public law on special education in America, defines serious emotional
disturbance as:

(i) a condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of
time (chronicity), and to a marked degree (severity), which adversely affects educational
performance (difficulty in school).

(a) an inability to learn which cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, and

health factors;

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 (b) an inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with
peers and teachers;

(c) inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances;

(d) a general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression; or

(e) a tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with persona or

school problems.

(ii) The term includes children who are schizophrenic (or autistic). The term does not
include children who are socially maladjusted unless it is determined that they are
seriously emotionally disturbed.

Etiological Factors and Causes of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

Biological Factors

Authorities believe that all children are born with a biologically determined
temperament. The inborn temperament may not directly cause a behavior problem to
occur but may predispose the child to behavior disturbances. Certain events that
easygoing children can handle may be problematic to other children with a difficult
temperament. However, studies show that even when a biological impairment exists,
there are no proofs to link the physiological abnormality to the occurrence of emotional
and behavioral disorders.

Environmental Factors

Home and Family Influences

The relationship that a child has with the parents during the early years is critical
to the way he learns to behave. Frequent parental involvement in providing for the child’s
physical and psychological needs is a significant factor in developing a health self-
concept. Parent who creates situations in a loving and caring atmosphere to meet those
needs teach their children about norms of conduct and acceptable behavior. Attention
and reinforcement of positive behavior as well as appropriate discipline for negative
behavior in an atmosphere of love and care help shape desirable patterns of behavior.

School Experiences

There are experiences in school where children spend a large part of the day that
can precipitate the occurrence of behavior problems. A child who gets all the attention at
home suddenly finds himself competing for the teacher’s attention with thirty other
children. There are class rules to obey unlike at home where he or she can do as he or
she pleases. It is common for bigger classmates to bully the small ones leading to fights
and quarrels. When a child is not ready to handle these events he or she resorts to
externalizing or internalizing behaviors. School experiences can contribute to the
development of emotional and behavioral disturbances.

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 The causes of emotional and behavioral disorders are related to predisposing,
precipitating and sustaining factors in the occurrence of the said behavior. Predisposing
factors refer to the tendencies and risks to develop emotional disturbances. Examples
are physical illness or disabilities, shyness, hyperactive behavior that may come about
as a result of heredity or emotionally dysfunctional home environments. Precipitating
factors refer to specific incidents that may trigger the display of emotional disturbances.
Examples are death in the family, abandonment, separation of parents and other crisis
situations. The continuous presence of the predisposing and precipitating factors in the
person’s environment leads to the recurrence of the emotional disturbances.

Both predisposing and precipitating factors may or may not trigger emotional
disturbances because of individual differences in the manner by which a person is able
to handle problems and crisis situations.

Antisocial Behavior

These children manifest consistent and frequent disordered patterns of behavior

that violate the rules and regulations at home, the laws of the community and the
country. They show their disdain for society and its norms by engaging in activities that
go against others and property. In the classroom where students are expected to follow
certain standards, these children maintain an out-of-seat behavior, do not complete
school work, run around, hit and pick up fights, disturb their classmates, ignore, talk back
to and argue with the teachers and school authorities, complain excessively and distort
the truth. They steal, engage in vandalism by destroying public and private property, and
keep the company of known goons and criminal elements. Other characteristics are
willingness to commit rule infractions, defiance to adult authority, and violation of the
social norms and mores of society.

Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)

Symptoms: (APA, 1994)
 Often loses one’s temper
 Often argues with adult’s requests or rules
 Often actively defies or refuses to comply with adult’s requests or rules
 Often deliberately annoys people
 Often blames others for one’s mistakes or misbehavior
 Often touchy or easily annoyed by others
 Often angry and resentful
 Often spiteful and vindictive

Children who display patterns of antisocial behavior very early in life are at risk
for developing more serious and long-standing behavior problems in adolescence and
adulthood.

Externalizing and Internalizing Behavioral Disorders

Some children with emotional and behavioral disorders display externalizing

behavioral disorders that violate the rules and norms of society and annoy and disturb

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other people. Some common examples re: out-of-seat behavior, making unnecessary
noise, truancy, constant talking to self and others, disobedience, inattention, persistent
lying, constant blaming of others.

On the other hand, too little social interaction of children with internalizing
behavioral disorders creates a serious impediment to their development. They manifest
withdrawn behavior, lack social skills, often daydream, tend to be fearful of things and
events without reason and may experience serious bouts of depression. Internalizing
behavioral disorders involve mental or emotional conflicts that may go unnoticed.

Aggressive and Violent Behavior

Aggression refers to acts that are abusive, that severely interfere with the
activities of other people or objects and events in the environment. Examples of the
milder forms of aggression are teasing, clowning around, tattling, and bullying. Sever
aggression includes threat of physical harm, physical attack, destruction of property and
cruelty.

Delinquency

The word delinquency is a legal term that refers to the criminal offenses
committed by an adolescent. Delinquency is a behavioral disorder. Studies show that a
pattern of antisocial behavior early in a child’s life is a strong predictor of delinquency in
adolescence. Criminal careers start at an early age, usually by age 12. The adolescents
commit more serious offenses and continue a pattern of anti-social behavior until
adulthood. Often times, they are beyond the control of their parents, family and friends.
Many offenses are brought to court, but others remain unreported and unknown.

Juvenile Offenses Crime

1. breaking in and destroying private 1. robbery
property, attempted burglary, stealing,
shoplifting
2. brutality – beating up a person until he 2. attempted homicide, murder
or she is black and blue, burning a house
or a person, shooting a person
3. lascivious acts, touching the private 3. rape
parts of a person, attempted rape
especially of children, those with
disabilities
4. early smoking and drinking, 4. committing crimes under the influence of
experimenting habituation to prohibited liquor, drugs, drug dependency, drug
drugs pushing
5. carrying a knife, ice pick 5. carrying deadly weapons
6. disorderly conduct 6. shooting incidents, murder
Table 3 Juvenile Offenses and the Crime they can Lead to

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 When a young person is brought to court for committing certain offenses,
charged and found guilty, he or she is described as a juvenile delinquent. Almost half of
all juvenile delinquents are recidivists or repeat offenders who go in and out of jail.

Identification and Assessment

The procedures are similar to those used in the other types of disabilities.
Teachers, parents, peers and other persons report cases of simple offenses like being
beaten up, stealing, smoking, sniffing rugby, and similar juvenile offenses. Screening is
done to eliminate children who do not have behavior problems. The children who show
the early signs or who seem to be at risk for developing emotional and behavioral
disorders are identified.

Direct observation is done to determine the frequency, duration, topography,

magnitude and stimulus control of the behavior. The cases are found to be beyond the
help of the school and home authorities are referre3d to professional clinicians for
assessment.

Educational Approaches

Applied Behavior Analysis

The regular teacher and the special education teacher work collaboratively in
developing an individualized education plan or IEP. The aim is to decrease the
undesirable and maladaptive behavior and increase the occurrence of desirable
behavior. The behavioral theory and model of personality development is applied. The
theory assumes that the behavior problems have been learned from his or her history of
interactions with the environment. Applied behavior analysis strategies are employed to
help the child learn new, appropriate responses and eliminate the inappropriate ones.

Teaching Social Skills

Stephens (1992) has developed a curriculum that covers 132 specific social skills
for school-aged children grouped into 30 subcategories under four major areas:

1. self-related behaviors: accepting consequences, ethical behavior, expressing

feelings, positive attitude toward self

2. task-related behaviors: attending behavior, following directions, performing

before others, quality of work

3. environmental behaviors: care for the environment, dealing with emergencies,

lunchroom behavior

4. interpersonal behavior: accepting authority, gaining attention, helping others,

making conversations

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Teaching Self-Management Skills

A number of programs on teaching self-management skills have been developed

by specialists that aim to enable students with behavior problems to have some control
over their own behaviors and over their environment. The special education teacher
plays the role of the external control agent who teaches appropriate behaviors in the
resource room that the student needs to apply in appropriate settings. The teacher
cannot be with the student at home, in the classroom or in places in the community and
other settings where the student needs to exhibit the learned behaviors. But the one
person who is always with the student is his own self. The student learns to observe and
record his own behavior in different settings. The records are analyzed together with the
teacher so that the student sees for himself the negative effects of his acting out
behaviors. Effective ways of handling the situations are learned and practice. Good work
is reinforced with physical and social rewards.

Intervention Procedures that Minimize Behavior Problems

Ecological intervention (Culatta, et al. 2003) is built on the principle that behavior
problems exist within the child’s environment where a constant global interaction
between the child and the environment occurs. In ecological intervention, initially, the
point of encounter between the child and people or events in the environment is
identified. Then, the cultural source of the problem is traced in terms of the people, the
cultural practices and other influences in the community. Finally, an intervention
procedure that focuses in the person and the environment is developed and applied to
the problematic situation.

Positive reinforcement is universally accepted intervention designed to increase

the display of desirable behavior and to decrease or reduce the opportunity for
negatively viewed behavior to occur through a system of rewards.

Rule setting is an easy and effective way to manage behavior in the classroom. A
few, simple, realistic, and easy-to-follow rules are set together with the consequences if
they are followed or violated.

Pacing the lesson and using a variety of activities are simple yet effective ways of
managing behavior. Some activities use games, humor, proximity control and letting
others following the examples. The teacher can model the desired behavior without
verbal cues.

Other educational strategy is cognitive strategy. In cognitive strategy, self-

monitoring, self-instruction, and self-control strategies are utilized. The goal is to help the
students develop self-awareness and self-direction by using positive reinforcement for
social development and improved academic performance. The student records his or her
own behavior or academic scores. Sometimes the teacher does the recording and they
compare notes of their ratings. If the ratings are consistent with each other, the student
receives an extra reinforce.

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. Application

How would you deal with behavior problems in your classroom? Role play a
classroom that creates a positive learning environment. Present your intervention
practices.

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