SH1680

Introduction to Database Systems

I. File Systems
 the method of organizing and retrieving files from a storage medium (hard drives,
flash drives, CDs, etc.)
 used by personnel in any organization to track and monitor necessary data

A. Disadvantages in Using File Systems

 Lengthy development times mean that even the simplest data-retrieval tasks
require extensive programming. This is common with older file systems, where
programmers need to specify what must be done and how it will be done.
 Report generation and query processing may be slow as it may require
extensive programming on some languages, meaning it may take weeks or even
months to generate reports from large amounts of data.
 System administration is complex, as report programs are created for each
reporting need. As file numbers expand, administration becomes more difficult.
 Security and data sharing may present issues, as sharing of files between users
invite a lot of security risks that can cause damage to important data. There are
other alternatives, but this dissolves the need for user level access and restrictions,
and are thus, not used.
 Programming the systems may be too extensive, because of the various
processes that need to be undertaken by the programmer to transfer a file structure
into this form. This also means high costs, restricted access to data, and long
development times.

II. Database Systems

 refer to an organization of components that define and regulate the collection, storage,
management, and use of data within a database environment
 computerized systems whose overall purpose is to maintain information and make
that information available on demand
A. What is a Database?
 a collection of both end-user data and metadata:
o Metadata is self-describing data that contains characteristics and relationships
that link the data found within the database itself.
o End-user Data are raw facts of interest relevant to the end-user using the
database.
 presents a more complete depiction of data
 basically works in a similar way as a typical file cabinet does
B. Five (5) Major Parts of a Database System
 Hardware identifies all the system’s physical devices. For example, the typical
main hardware component of a database system is the computer and all other
peripherals that control computer input and output.
 Software refers to the collection of programs used by the computers within the
database, of which are three (3) types:

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o OS (Operating System) Software refers to the program that manages the

hardware components which makes all other software run on a computer.
o DBMS Software is the software that manages the database within the
database system.
o Application Programs are mostly used to access and manipulate data in the
DBMS, as well as manage the application environment (interfaces, menus, etc.)
where data is accessed and manipulated.
 Peopleware refers to the people who use the database under certain privileges:
o System Administrators oversee the general operations of the database
system.
o Database Administrators (DBAs) manage the use and functionality of the
system.
o Database Designers and Architects design the structure of the database.
o System Analysts and Programmers design and implement the application
programs.
o End Users use the application programs and, in turn, the database system, for
the daily operations of an organization.
 Procedures are the rules that govern the design and use of the database system
by enforcing standards on how the business will be conducted within the
organization. They are mostly used to ensure monitoring and audit of both the flow
of data and how it is organized within the database to maintain integrity.
 Data, in its entirety, represents the collection of information, their relations and
characteristics, within the database system.

III. Database Models

 define the logical design of data that can be stored, organized, and manipulated in a
database system
 provide a representation of the infrastructure offered by a particular database system
A. Two (2) Categories of Database Models
 The Conceptual Model focuses on the logical nature of the data representation.
It is concerned with what is represented in the database.
 The Implementation Model which places emphasis on how the data are
represented in the database or how the data structures are implemented to
represent what is modeled.
B. The Building Blocks of a Database Model
 Entities are anything about which data are to be collected and stored, such as a
person, a place, a thing, or an event. It represents a particular kind of object in the
real world that may either be a physical or conceptual object.
 Attributes are the defining and/or important characteristics of an entity. For
example, an entity representing a student in real life may have attributes such as
student number, student name, student address, and student contact number.
 Relationships describe the association among entities (for example, a student-
teacher relationship, where a student attends classes conducted by several
teachers, and a teacher teaching several students). There are three (3) types of
relationships:

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o One-to-One Relationships (1:1) depict one entity having a relationship to

another entity. For example, a student may be taught by only one teacher
throughout a class.
o One-to-Many Relationships (1:*) depict one entity having a relationship to
multiple entities. For example, a teacher having multiple students in a class.
o Many-to-Many Relationships (*:*) depict multiple entities having multiple
relationships to multiple other entities. For example, students can learn many
subjects, and many subjects may be applicable to many students.
 Constraints are restrictions placed on the data in order to ensure data integrity.
They are usually written in the form of rules. For example, passing students must
have an average grade of 75%.

C. Types of Database Models

 The Hierarchical Database Model is used to manage large amounts of data for
complex manufacturing projects, and has a basic logical structure of an upside-
down tree where parent entities can have several children and can be children of
other parent entities.
 The Network Model was created to represent complex data relationships, improve
database performance, and impose a database standard. It is very similar to the
hierarchical model such that it also facilitates 1:* relationships. However, the
network database also allows the child to have several parents.
 The Relational Model is a collection of relations visually represented by two-
dimensional (2) tables having distinct names. It functions similar to a spreadsheet
table with rows called records and columns called fields.
 The Entity-Relationship Model (E-R Model) yields a more graphical
representation of entities and their attributes and relationships in a database
structure via an entity-relationship diagram. This database model also
introduced the three (3) types of relationships.
 The Object-Oriented Model stores both data and their relationships and attributes
in a single structure known as an object, composed mostly of a real-world
equivalent, its attributes that describe the object’s properties, classes which
categorize objects of a similar attribute or method, and inheritance which refers to
the object’s abilities to inherit attributes and methods from parent classes above it.
IV. Database Management Systems (DBMS)
 part of the database system that manages the database structure and controls access
to the data stored in the database
 can be a compiled collection of programs or a single program that contains all of the
necessary functions
A. Functions of a DBMS
 It allows data dictionary management to make programs that access data from
the database work.
 It allows data storage management to eliminate the need to define and program
the physical data characteristics.

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 It allows data transformation and presentation using application programs

independent from the DBMS by transforming the data to conform to structures that
store them.
 It implements security management via security systems that enforce
restrictions and privacy settings within the database in order to maintain data
integrity and levels of both access and control for data.
 It provides access control for multiple users for sharing without compromising
data integrity and consistency thru sophisticated algorithms.
 It provides backup and recovery to ensure that data is safe in the event of
catastrophic events.
 It manages data integrity by eliminating data redundancy through the
implementation and enforcement of integrity and security rules via data
relationships stored in the data dictionary.
 It provides data access via query language, a nonprocedural, higher-level
language that lets the user specify what must be done without having to specify
how it is to be done.
 It provides special communication interfaces and routines designed to allow
the database to accept end-user requests within a computer network environment.
V. Data Dictionaries
 also called the Metadata Repository
 centralized repositories of information about data such as meaning, relationships to
other data, origin, usage, and format
A. Two (2) Main Types of Data Dictionaries
 Integrated Data Dictionaries are those included as part of the DBMS.
 Standalone Data Dictionaries are third-party dictionaries separate from the
DBMS.
B. Two (2) Classifications of Data Dictionaries
 Active Data Dictionaries are automatically updated by the DBMS by every
database access, thus, keeping its access information updated.
 Passive Data Dictionaries are not automatically updated and requires processing.

References
 Coronel, C., Crockett, K., and Rob, P. (2012). Database systems: design,
implementation & management. USA: Cengage Learning EMEA
 Singh, S. K. (2009). Database systems: Concepts, design and applications. India:
Pearson Education.
 Adamski, J. and Pratt, P. (2012). Database management systems (7th ed.). USA:
Cengage Learning
 Elmarsi, R. and Navathe, S. (2010). Fundamentals of database systems (6th ed.).
Pearson Education South Asia Pte. Ltd.
 Rockoff, L. (2011). The language of SQL. Cengage Learning.
 Korth, H., Silberschatz, A., and Sudarshan, S. (2011). Database system concepts
(6th ed.). New York. McGraw-Hill.

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