“Fabrication and Calibration of Thermocouple Psychrometer”

A
Minor Project Report

submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
by

IshwardayalKhobragade (0201ME071033)
Madan Patel (0201ME071040)
Manish Singh (0201ME071041)
Neelesh Dixit (0201ME071047)
NeerajChoudhary (0201ME071048)
Nikhil Mishra (0201ME071050)
Nimish Singh (0201ME071052)
NishantDubey (0201ME071054)
RaghunathVishwakarma (0201ME071064)

under the guidance of

Dr. B.K. CHOURASIA

Reader (Mech. Engg.)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

JABALPUR ENGINEERING COLLEGE, JABALPUR
2009-10
JABAPLUR ENGINEERING COLLEGE, JABALPUR (M.P.)
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the report entitled

“Fabrication and Calibration of Thermocouple Psychrometer”

is carried out by

IshwardayalKhobragade (0201ME071033)
Madan Patel (0201ME071040)
Manish Singh (0201ME071041)
Neelesh Dixit (0201ME071047)
NeerajChoudhary (0201ME071048)
Nikhil Mishra (0201ME071050)
Nimish Singh (0201ME071052)
NishantDubey (0201ME071054)
RaghunathVishwakarma (0201ME071064)

in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Bachelor of Engineering in

Mechnaical Engineering to “Rajiv Gandhi ProudyogikiVishwavidalaya, Bhopal
(M.P.)” during session of 2009-10 have been successfully completed under my guidance
and supervision.The same has not been submitted by us to this or any other university for
any other graduate / post graduate course what so ever.

Dr. B.K. Chourasia Dr. Veerendrakumar

Reader, Mechanical engineering H.O.D. of Mechanical Engineering
Department Department.
JABAPLUR ENGINEERING COLLEGE, JABALPUR (M.P.)
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the report entitled

“Fabrication and Calibration of Thermocouple Psychrometer”

is carried out by

IshwardayalKhobragade (0201ME071033)
Madan Patel (0201ME071040)
Manish Singh (0201ME071041)
Neelesh Dixit (0201ME071047)
NeerajChoudhary (0201ME071048)
Nikhil Mishra (0201ME071050)
Nimish Singh (0201ME071052)
NishantDubey (0201ME071054)
RaghunathVishwakarma (0201ME071064)

in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Bachelor of Engineering in

Mechnaical Engineering to “Rajiv Gandhi ProudyogikiVishwavidalaya, Bhopal
(M.P.)” during session of 2009-10 have been successfully completed under my guidance
and supervision.The same has not been submitted by us to this or any other university for
any other graduate / post graduate course what so ever.

INTERNAL EXTERNAL
 Contents
1. Introduction.
2. Literature review.
3. Instrumentation
a. Psychrometer

b. Digital Panel meter

c. Hypsometer

d. Hot plate

4. Calibration of thermocouple
a. Theory and Working principle

b. Experimental setup

c. Procedure

d. Calculation

e. Result

5. Calculation of relative humidity

a. Psychrometer construction

b. Description

c. Working

d. Calculation

e. Result

6. Significance of relative humidity

7. Conclusion
8. References
CHAPTER: 1
INTRODUCTION

PSYCHROMETER:

A psychrometer set up consists of two wooden boards which are fixed as T-shaped
structure. On the vertically fixed wooden board a CPU fan is placed which
provides air in outside direction .This fan is covered by a metallic sheet which can
be made to slide on the vertical wooden board. Two holes are drilled in the vertical
wooden board below the fan and through these holes two thermocouple wires are
passed. One of the thermocouple is placed in ambient air and the other is connected
to the wick which is in the conical flask filled with water and is placed on the
horizontal wooden board.

The thermocouple in the ambient air gives the reading for the dry bulb temperature
and the thermocouple connected to the wick gives the reading for the wet bulb
temperature. The other end is placed in the ice box containing ice at zerodegree
Celsius. Two are taken out from the thermocouple wires and are connected to the
DPM. The fan is connected to a D.C. adaptor.

THERMOCOUPLE:

A thermocouple is a junction between two different metals that produces a voltage

related to a temperature difference. Thermocouples are a widely used type of
temperature sensor and can also be used to convert heat into electric power. They
are cheapand interchangeable, have standard connectors, and can measure a wide
range of temperatures. The main limitation is accuracy, system errors of less than
one Kelvin (K) can be difficult to achieve.
Any circuit made of dissimilar metals will produce a temperature-related
difference of voltage. Thermocouples for practical measurement of temperature are
made of specific alloys, which in combination have a predictable and repeatable
relationship between temperature and voltage. Different alloys are used for
different temperature ranges, and to resist corrosion. Where the measurement point
is far from the measuring instrument, the intermediate connection can be made by
extension wires, which are less costly than the materials used to make the sensor.
Thermocouples are standardized against a reference temperature of 0 degrees
Celsius; practical instruments use electronic methods of cold-junction
compensation to adjust for varying temperature at the instrument terminals.
Electronic instruments can also compensate for the varying characteristics of the
thermocouple, and so improve the precision and accuracy of measurements.
CHAPTER: 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Thermocouple:

In 1821, the German–Estonian physicist Thomas Johann See-

beck discovered that when any conductor is subjected to a thermal gradient, it will
generate a voltage. This is now known as the thermoelectric effect or See-beck
effect. Any attempt to measure this voltage necessarily involves connecting
another conductor to the "hot" end. This additional conductor will then also
experience the temperature gradient, and develop a voltage of its own which will
oppose the original. Fortunately, the magnitude of the effect depends on the metal
in use. Using a dissimilar metal to complete the circuit creates a circuit in which
the two legs generate different voltages, leaving a small difference in voltage
available for measurement. That difference increases with temperature, and can
typically be between 1 and 70 microvolts per degree Celsius (µV/°C) for the
modern range of available metal combinations. Certain combinations have become
popular as industry standards, driven by cost, availability, convenience, melting
point, chemical properties, stability, and output. This coupling of two metals gives
the thermocouple its name.

Thermocouples measure the temperature difference between two points, not

absolute temperature. In traditional applications, one of the junctions—the cold
junction—was maintained at a known (reference) temperature, while the other end
was attached to a probe.

Having available a known temperature cold junction, while useful for laboratory
calibrations, is simply not convenient for most directly connected indicating and
control instruments. They incorporate into their circuits an artificial cold junction
using some other thermally sensitive device, such as a thermistor or diode, to
measure the temperature of the input connections at the instrument, with special
care being taken to minimize any temperature gradient between terminals. Hence,
the voltage from a known cold junction can be simulated, and the appropriate
correction applied. This is known as cold junction compensation.

A thermocouple can produce current, which means it can be used to drive some
processes directly, without the need for extra circuitry and power sources. For
example, the power from a thermocouple can activate a valve when a temperature
difference arises. The electric power generated by a thermocouple is a conversion
of the heat energy that one must continuously supply to the hot side of the
thermocouple to maintain the electric potential. The flow of heat is necessary
because the current flowing through the thermocouple tends to cause the hot side to
cool down and the cold side to heat up (the Peltier effect).

Thermocouples can be connected in series with each other to form a thermopile,

where all the hot junctions are exposed to the higher temperature and all the cold
junctions to a lower temperature. The voltages of the individual thermocouples add
up, allowing for a larger voltage and increased power output, thus increasing the
sensitivity of the instrumentation. With the radioactive decay of transuranic
elements providing a heat source this arrangement has been used to power
spacecraft on missions too far from the Sun to utilize solar power.

Psychrometer :

In a psychrometer, there are two thermocouple, one with a dry bulb and one with a
wet bulb. Evaporation from the wet bulb lowers the temperature, so that the wet-
bulb thermometer usually shows a lower temperature than that of the dry-bulb
thermometer, which measures drybulb temperature. When the air temperature is
below freezing, however, the wet bulb is covered with a thin coating of ice and yet
may be warmer than the dry bulb. Relative humidity is computed from the ambient
temperature as shown by the dry-bulb thermometer and the difference in
temperatures as shown by the wet-bulb and dry-bulb thermometers. Relative
humidity can also be determined by locating the intersection of the wet- and dry-
bulb temperatures on a psychrometric chart.

Common applications

Although the principles of psychrometry apply to any physical system consisting

of gas-vapor mixtures, the most common system of interest is the mixture of water
vapor and air, because of its application in heating, ventilating, and air-
conditioning and meteorology. In human terms, our comfort is in large part a
consequence of, not just the temperature of the surrounding air, but (because we
cool ourselves via perspiration) the extent to which that air is saturated with water
vapor.
DRY-BULB TEMPERATURE:

The dry-bulb temperature is the temperature of air measured by a thermometer

freely exposed to the air but shielded from radiation and moisture. Dry bulb
temperature is the temperature that is usually thought of as air temperature. It is the
temperature measured by a regular thermometer exposed to the airstream. Unlike
wet bulb temperature, dry bulb temperature does not indicate the amount of
moisture in the air. In construction, it is an important consideration when designing
a building for a certain climate. Nall called it one of "the most important climate
variables for human comfort and building energy efficiency."(Reference 5)

Common thermometers measure what is known as the dry-bulb temperature.

Electronic temperature measurement, via thermocouples, thermistors, and
resistance temperature devices (RTDs), for example, have been widely used too
since they became available.

WET-BULB TEMPERATURE:

The wet-bulb temperature is a type of temperature measurement that reflects the

physical properties of a system with a mixture of a gas and a vapor, usually air and
water vapor. Wet bulb temperature is the lowest temperature that can be reached
by the evaporation of water only. It is the temperature you feel when your skin is
wet and is exposed to moving air. Unlike dry bulb temperature, wet bulb
temperature is an indication of the amount of moisture in the air. Wet-bulb
temperature can have several technical meanings:

 Thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature: the temperature a volume of air

would have if cooled adiabatically to saturation at constant pressure by
evaporation of water into it, all latent heat being supplied by the volume of
air.
 The temperature read from a wet bulb thermometer
 Adiabatic wet-bulb temperature: the temperature a volume of air would have
if cooled adiabatically to saturation and then compressed adiabatically to the
original pressure in a moist-adiabatic process.
The thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature is a thermodynamic property of a
mixture of air and water vapor. The value indicated by a simple wet-bulb
thermometer often provides an adequate approximation of the thermodynamic
wet-bulb temperature.

A wet-bulb thermometer is an instrument which may be used to infer the amount

of moisture in the air. If a moist cloth wick is placed over a thermometer bulb the
evaporation of moisture from the wick will lower the thermometer reading
(temperature). If the air surrounding a wet-bulb thermometer is dry, evaporation
from the moist wick will be more rapid than if the air is moist. When the air is
saturated no water will evaporate from the wick and the temperature of the wet-
bulb thermometer will be the same as the reading on the dry-bulb thermometer.
However, if the air is not saturated water will evaporate from the wick causing the
temperature reading to be lower.(Reference 5)

Practical considerations

The thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature is the minimum temperature which may

be achieved by purely evaporative cooling of a water-wetted (or ice-covered),
ventilated surface.

For air at a known pressure and dry-bulb temperature, the thermodynamic wet-bulb
temperature corresponds to unique values of relative humidity, dew point
temperature, and other properties. The relationships between these values are
illustrated in a psychrometric chart.

For air that is less than saturated (100 percent relative humidity), the wet-bulb
temperature is lower than the dry-bulb temperature; and the dew point temperature
is less than the wet-bulb temperature.

Cooling of the human body through perspiration is inhibited as the wet-bulb

temperature (and relative humidity) of the surrounding air increases in summer.
Other mechanisms may be at work in winter if there is validity to the notion of a
"humid cold."

Lower wet-bulb temperatures in summer can translate to energy savings in air-

conditioned buildings due to:

1. Reduced dehumidification load for ventilation air

2. Increased efficiency of cooling towers
PSYCHROMETRIC CHART:

A psychrometric chart is a graph of the thermodynamic properties of moist air at a

constant pressure (often equated to an elevation relative to sea level). The
properties are:

 Dry-bulb temperature (DBT) is that of an air sample, as determined by an

ordinary thermometer, the thermometer's bulb being dry. It is typically the
abscissa (horizontal axis) of the graph. The SI units for temperature are
kelvins or degrees Celsius; other unitis degrees Fahrenheit.
 Wet-bulb temperature (WBT) is that of an air sample after it has passed
through a constant-pressure, ideal, adiabatic saturation process, that is, after
the air has passed over a large surface of liquid water in an insulated
channel. In practice, this is the reading of a thermometer whose sensing bulb
is covered with a wet sock evaporating into a rapid stream of the sample air
(see Hygrometer). When the air sample is saturated with water, the WBT
will read the same as the DBT. The slope of the line of constant WBT
reflects the heat of vaporization of the water required to saturate the air of a
given relative humidity.
 Dew point temperature (DPT) is that temperature at which a moist air
sample at the same pressure would reach water vapor “saturation.” At this
point further removal of heat would result in water vapor condensing into
liquid water fog or (if below freezing) solid hoarfrost. The dew point
temperature is measured easily and provides useful information, but is
normally not considered an independent property of the air sample. It
duplicates information available via other humidity properties and the
saturation curve.
 Relative humidity (RH) is the ratio of the mole fraction of water vapor to the
mole fraction of saturated moist air at the same temperature and pressure.
RH is dimensionless, and is usually expressed as a percentage. Lines of
constant RH reflect the physics of air and water: they are determined via
experimental measurement. Note: the notion that air "holds" moisture, or
that moisture “dissolves” in dry air and saturates the solution at some
proportion, is an erroneous (albeit widespread) concept (see relative
humidity for further details).
 Humidity ratio (also known as moisture content or mixing ratio) is the
proportion of mass of water vapor per unit mass of dry air at the given
conditions (DBT, WBT, DPT, RH, etc.). It is typically the ordinate (vertical
 axis) of the graph. For a given DBT there will be a particular humidity ratio
for which the air sample is at 100% relative humidity: the relationship
reflects the physics of water and air and must be measured. Humidity ratio is
dimensionless, but is sometimes expressed as grams of water per kilogram
of dry air or grains of water per pound of air (7000 grains equal 1 pound).
Specific humidity is closely related to humidity ratio but always lower in
value as it expresses the proportion of the mass of water vapor per unit mass
of the air sample (dry air plus the water vapor).
 Specific enthalpy symbolized by h, also called heat content per unit mass, is
the sum of the internal (heat) energy of the moist air in question, including
the heat of the air and water vapor within. In the approximation of ideal
gases, lines of constant enthalpy are parallel to lines of constant WBT.
Enthalpy is given in (SI) joules per kilogram of air or BTU per pound of dry
air.
 Specific volume, also called inverse density, is the volume per unit mass of
the air sample. The SI units are cubic meters per kilogram of dry air; other
units are cubic feet per pound of dry air.

The versatility of the psychrometric chart lies in the fact that by knowing three
independent properties of some moist air (one of which is the pressure), the other
properties can be determined. Changes in state, such as when two air streams mix,
can be modeled easily and somewhat graphically using the correct psychrometric
chart for the location's air pressure or elevation relative to sea level. For locations
at or below 2000 ft (600 m), a common practice is to use the sea-level
psychrometric chart.

How to read the chart

In the ω-t chart, the dry bulb temperature (DBT) t appears as the abscissa
(horizontal axis) and the humidity ratio (ω) appear as the ordinate (vertical axis). A
chart is valid for a given air pressure (or elevation above sea level). From any two
of the six independent properties (DBT, WBT, RH, humidity ratio, specific
enthalpy, and specific volume), the balance of the six can be reckoned.

DBT: Can be determined from the abscissa [[x-axis][t–axis]], the horizontal axis

DPT: Follow the horizontal line from the point where the line from the horizontal
axis arrives at 100% RH, also known as the saturation curve.

WBT: Line inclined to the horizontal and intersects saturation curve at DBT point.
RH: Hyperbolic lines drawn asymptotically with respect to the saturation curve
which corresponds to 100% RH.

Humidity ratio: Marked on the y-axis.

Specific enthalpy: lines of equal values, or hash marks for, slope from the upper
left to the lower right.

Specific volume: Equally spaced parallel family of lines.

DEW POINT:
The dew point is the temperature to whichair must be cooled, at constant
barometric pressure, for water vapor to condense into water. The condensed water
is called dew. The dew point is a saturation point.

The dew point is associated with relative humidity. A high relative humidity
indicates that the dew point is closer to the current air temperature. Relative
humidity of 100% indicates the dew point is equal to the current temperature and
the air is maximally saturated with water. When the dew point remains constant
and temperature increases, relative humidity will decrease.

At a given barometric pressure, independent of temperature, the dew point

indicates the mole fraction of water vapor in the air, and therefore determines the
specific humidity of the air. The dew point is an important statistic for general
aviation pilots, as it is used to calculate the likelihood of carburetor icing and fog,
and estimate the height of the cloud base.

Comfort range
Humans tend to react with discomfort to a high dew point (i.e. greater than 15 °C
(59 °F)), as it interferes with the body's normal process of perspiring (producing
sweat) to cool down. High relative humidity (which results in a high dew point)
impedes the evaporation of sweat and reduces the effectiveness of evaporative
cooling. As a result the body may overheat, resulting in discomfort.

Discomfort also exists when dealing with low dew points (i.e below −30 °C
(−22.0 °F)). The drier air can cause skin to crack, become irritated more easily and
will dry out the respiratory paths.

Lower dew points, less than 10 °C (50 °F), correlate with lower ambient
temperatures and the body require less cooling. A lower dew point can go along
with a high temperature only at extremely low relative humidity (see graph below),
allowing for relative effective cooling.

Those accustomed to continental climates often begin to feel uncomfortable when

the dew point reaches between 15 and 20 °C (59 and 68 °F). Most inhabitants of
these areas will consider dew points above 21 °C (70 °F) oppressive.
 Rel. Humidity at 32 °C
Dew Point °C Dew Point °F Human Perception
(90 °F)

>Higher than >Higher than Severely high. Even deadly for asthma
65% and higher
26 °C 80 °F related illnesses

24 - 26 °C 75 - 80 °F Extremely uncomfortable, fairly oppressive 62%

21 - 24 °C 70 - 74 °F Very humid, quite uncomfortable 52% - 60%

Somewhat uncomfortable for most people at

18 - 21 °C 65 - 69 °F 44% - 52%
upper edge

OK for most, but all perceive the humidity at

16 - 18 °C 60 - 64 °F 37% - 46%
upper edge

13 - 16 °C 55 - 59 °F Comfortable 31% - 41%

10 - 12 °C 50 - 54 °F Very comfortable 31% - 37%

<10 °C <49 °F A bit dry for some 30%

RELATIVE HUMIDITY:
Relative humidity is a term used to describe the amount of water vapor that exists
in a gaseous mixture of air and water vapor.

Definition

Relative humidity can be defined as the ratio of partial pressures of water vapor in
a certain unsaturated moist air at a given temperature to the saturation pressure of
water vapor at the same temperature.

Relative humidity is normally expressed as a percentage and is calculated by using

the following equation:

Pv
RH =
Ps

According to carrier equation (Reference 1)

(750−P ' V )(t−t ' )(1. 8)
PV =P ' V −
2800−1 . 3(1. 8 t+32)

P' V = Saturation pressure of water at wet bulb temperature

PS= Saturation pressure of water at dry bulb temperature

t= Dry bulb temperature

t'= Wet bulb temperature

CHAPTER: 3
INSTRUMENTS USED FOR THE TESTING
1. Digital Panel Meter
Digital panel meters are used to display an input signal, and measure current,
voltage, and frequency. They are equipped with bright LED displays for display
only or set point control options. Many panel meters also include alarm options as
well as the ability to connect and transfer data to a c. One digital panel meter can
be made to display several stored input voltage values being held by a voltage hold
signal.SELECTOR SWITCH

DIGITAL PANEL METER

Specification:
Contents: electric hot plate
Qty: one unit
Current: AC only
Volts: 230/50 Hz
Watts: 1500watt
In this experiment we used digital panel meter which can measure the voltage in
mV with the accuracy of 0.001.
Digital panel meter can be used in the measurement of the radiation of the sun,
and the temperature of the atmosphere etc.

2. HYPSOMETER

It is a long vertical copper tube vented from both the ends. It is used for the
calibration of thermocouple. Water is filled in it and heated while one end of the
thermocouple is made to come in contact with the steam generated due to heating
water.

Specification:

Material used: copper

Size: 11 inch
The upper most tube of the hypsometer is used to dip the one end of the
thermocouple which acts as hot junction.
3. Hot plate

A hot plate is a small electric stove often used in food preparation, generally for
small dishes in places where a full kitchen stove would not be convenient.

Hot plates are often used in laboratory settings to heat glassware. Some hotplates
also contain a magnetic stirrer, allowing the heated liquid to be stirred
simultaneously. The hot plate used for the experiment is of 1500 watt capacity.
There are three way in the hot plate which we uses in our experiment that is
500watt, 1000watt, and 1500watt.

In this project the hot plate is used to generate

steam in the “HYPSOMETER” which is filled with water and we dip one end of
the thermocouple,that is known as hot junction.

HYPSOMETER
HOT PLATE THERMOCOUPLE WIRE
 ROTARY CHANNEL

Hot plate with Hypsometer

4. Rotary cam switch(selector switch)

These have been engineered and designed especially for fulfilling to meet the
requirements of latest concept in switching technology rotary cam switch has been
structured and designed specially. These rotary cam switches are designed with
high sophistication and miniaturization in control engineering. the switches are
hand operated, assembled on principle of choice of multi pole operation. They are
designed and assembled with selected insulating materials which can withstand
mechanical and electrical stress and have excellent electrical properties.

Selector switch

Specification:
Manufacturer
 Keycee-6AMP/440WATT/AC50HZ
TYPE: 8524GO/FPGB

Various cams are used depending upon the configuration and switching sequence
required. They are available on different angles 30, 45, 60 or 90° - depending upon
the number of positions.. Separate discs are inserted for separate operation. Some
of the constructional features of rotary cam switches include: the hand operated,
assembled on principle of choice of multi pole operation.

In this project we used selector switch to connect the thermocouple. The output of
the selector switch connected to the input of DPM to display the reading of the
thermocouple voltage.

Followings are the combination of the selector switch.

A1, B1 ----------- First junction of the connector switch

(it is connected through the first thermocouple)
A2, B2 ----------- Second junction of the connector switch
(It is connected through the second thermocouple)

A3, B3 ----------- Third junction of the connector switch

(It is connected through the Third thermocouple)
---------------------------------------
---------------------------------------
 ---------------------------------------

A7, B7 ----------- Seventh junction of the connector switch

(It is connected through the seventh thermocouple)

In the selector switch we connect the thermocouple by the two

core extension wires with proper connection. We can take the reading of different
thermocouples by rotating the switch. This is connected to the DPM, which display
the reading of the different thermocouples in mV.

Chapter: 4
CALIBRATION OF THERMOCOUPLES

WORKING PRINCIPLE :

Basic principle of thermocouple is based on the see beck effect. When two wires
composed of dissimilar metals are joined
at both ends and one of the ends is heated, there is a continuous current which
flows in the thermoelectric circuit. Thomas Seebeck made this discovery in 1821.
If this circuit is broken at the center, the net open circuit voltage (the Seebeck
voltage) is a function of the junction temperature and the composition of the two
metals. All dissimilar metals have this effect.

This relation is also given as following way

Δe = αΔT

Where

α = seebeck coefficient

ΔT = temperature difference between hot and cold

Junction

Δe = induced emf
 To achieve accurate measurements the equation is usually implemented in
a digital controller or stored in a look-up table. Some older devices use analog
filters.
 Cromalalumal thermocouple:-

Cromal-alumal wire

In our project we used two thermocouple of cromalalumalwire, each has two end
and two another end for output which is connected through Digital panel meter.
 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND WORKING PROCEDURE

Set up is as follows:HOT PLATE ICE BOX DPM

THERMOCOUPLE WIRE

ROTARY CHANNEL EXTENSION WIRE TO DPM SELECTOR SWITCH

Set up for calibration of thermocouple

PROCEDURE:

1.We have taken hypsometer filled with water placed over hot plate .one end of the
thermocouple is made to come in contact with steam produced due to heating
water, other end of thermocouple is made in contact with ice kept in an insulated
box.

2. Digital panel meter is connected to the all thermocouples by selector switch.

3. Care should be taken that one end of thermocouple which is made in contact
with steam should not come in contact with the walls of the hypsometer.

4. Reading is taken with the help of digital panel meter the moment the reading is
stabilized, similar procedure is followed and all the six thermocouple are calibrated
in similar manner and readings are obtained in mV.

5. Take all reading carefully and calculate calibration factor of the all
thermocouples.
Observation Table:

S.No. Thermocouple Reading(mV)

1. 01 4.012
2. 02 4.055

Calculation of the pressure: -

Relation is given by the following equation between the altitude and pressure –

PRESSURE (inch Hg)

= (29.921)×(1-6.8753 × 10-6 Altitude (in ft))^5.2559

P = (29.921) × (1-6.8753 ×10-6 ×1348.425) ^5.2559

(Altitude of Jabalpur is 411meter = 1348.425ft.)

P = 28.4905 inch Hg.

Now

1 inch = 25.4mm

So

P = 28.4905inch Hg = 723.65 mmHg

P = 723.65×133.32 = 96478.1778 Pa

P = 0.965 bar (AT JABALPUR)

From steam table at P = 0.965 bar

Saturation Temperature = 98.53 oC (AT JABALPUR)

--------------------
CALIBRATION FACTORS OF DIFFERENT THERMOCOUPLES

1. Thermocouple 01

From observation table –

4.055 mV = 98.53 oC
1 mV =24.29oC

1 mV =24.29oC

2. Thermocouple 02

From observation table –

4.01 mV = 98.53 oC
1 mV =24.56

1 mV =24.56oC

TABLE OF CALIBRATION FACTOR

S.No. Thermocouple Calibration factor (in oC)

1. 01 24.29
2. 02 24.56

------------------------------
Chapter: 5
PSYCHROMETER
A Psychrometer can be used for the measurement of the heat and water vapor
properties of air. Commonly used psychrometricvariables are temperature, relative
humidity, dew-point temperature, and wet-bulb temperature.

CONSTRUCTION

Apparatus required:

1. T-shaped wooden board.

2. Digital panel meter (DPM)

Current: AC only

Volts: 230V/50 Hz

Watts: 1500watt

3. CPU fan (12V D.C. supply)

4. Conical flask

5. Wick
CPU FAN CONICAL FLASK

WICK WATER INSIDE THE FLASK WBT WIRE

DBT WIRE

WIRE TO D.C.ADAPTOR
 CONICAL FLASK FILLED WITH WATER METAL SHEET COVER

WIRE TO D.C.ADAPTOR

6.Thermocouple wires

7. Ice box

8. D.C. adaptor (12 V, 500mA output)

9. Metal sheet cover

DESCRIPTION

A psychrometer set up consists of two wooden boards which are fixed as T-shaped
structure. On the vertically fixed wooden board a CPU fan is placed which
provides air in outside direction .This fan is covered by a metallic sheet which can
be made to slide on the vertical wooden board. Two holes are drilled in the vertical
wooden board below the fan and through these holes two thermocouple wires are
passed. One of the thermocouple is placed in ambient air and the other is connected
to the wick which is in the conical flask filled with water and is placed on the
horizontal wooden board.
The thermocouple in the ambient air gives the reading for the dry bulb temperature
and the thermocouple connected to the wick gives the reading for the wet bulb
temperature. The other end is placed in the ice box containing ice at 0 degree
Celsius. Two are taken out from the thermocouple wires and are connected to the
DPM. The fan is connected to a D.C. adaptor.

WORKING

a. After all the connections have been made the power supply is
switched on for the adaptor and the DPM.

b. The DPM gives the reading for the voltage produced due to
temperature difference across the two ends of the thermocouple.

c. One end of the thermocouple is placed in ambient air and that of the
other is connected to the wick and the other ends of both the
thermocouples are placed in the ice box, so the DPM will provide the
reading for the voltage produced due to the temperature difference.

d. The fan continuously evaporates the water present in the conicalflask

 e. The readings obtained from the DPM are converted into temperature
as dry bulb temperature and wet bulb temperature by multiplying the
DPM reading through calibration factor of the thermocouples obtained
experimentally.

CALULATIONS

The relative humidity can be calculated by three methods :

1.by psychrometric chart

2. by online calculators available

3. by theoretical method
FORMULA USED FOR THEORETICAL METHOD:
PV
RH=
PS

According to carrier equation(Reference 1)

(750−P ' V )(t−t ' )(1. 8)
PV =P ' V −
2800−1 . 3(1. 8 t+32)

P' V = Saturation pressure of water at wet bulb temperature

PS= Saturation pressure of water at dry bulb temperature

t= Dry bulb temperature

t'= Wet bulb temperature

RESULTS:
WBT DBT WBT DBT Relative Humidity
(DPM reading) °C °C Psychrometric Chart online calculator theoretical
(15-5-2010)
0.992 1.248 24.095 30.65 64% 58.43% 56.11%

0.884 1.52 21.47 37.331 26% 23.88% 23.73%

1.005 1.24 24.411 30.45 64% 61.20% 61.23%

1.026 1.234 24.921 30.307 66% 64.88% 64.90%

(16-5-2010)
0.877 1.375 21.302 33.77 34% 32.75% 32.67%

0.967 1.28 23.488 31.43 54% 51.60% 51.50%

1.04 1.272 25.261 31.24 66% 62.09% 62.10%

0.885 1.51 21.496 37.08 26% 24.55% 24.43%

1.032 1.242 25.067 30.503 68% 64.71% 64.69%

0.902 1.412 21.909 34.678 34% 32.52% 32.45%

(17-5-2010)
1.04 1.27 25.616 31.191 68% 64.35% 64.37%

0.942 1.375 22.881 33.77 43% 39.58% 39.55%

1.042 1.304 25.31 32.026 58% 58.56% 58.57%

0.95 1.402 23.075 34.43 42% 38.20% 38.15%

0.965 1.415 23.439 34.75 42% 38.71% 38.66%

Online calculators used were available at www.cytsoft.com and
www.csgnetwork.org
Chapter 6
SIGNIFICANCE OF RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Climate control

Climate control refers to the control of temperature and relative humidity for
human comfort, health and safety, and for the technical requirements of machines
and processes, in buildings, vehicles and other enclosed spaces.

Comfort

Humans are sensitive to humid air because the human body uses evaporative
cooling as the primary mechanism to regulate temperature. Under humid
conditions, the rate at which perspiration evaporates on the skin is lower than it
would be under arid conditions. Because humans perceive the rate of heat transfer
from the body rather than temperature itself, we feel warmer when the relative
humidity is high than when it is low.

For example, if the air temperature is 24 °C (75 °F) and the relative humidity is
zero percent, then the air temperature feels like 21 °C (69 °F). If the relative
humidity is 100 percent at the same air temperature, then it feels like 27 °C (80 °F).
In other words, if the air is 24 °C and contains saturated water vapor, then the
human body cools itself at the same rate as it would if it were 27 °C and dry. The
heat index and the humidity index are indices that reflect the combined effect of
temperature and humidity on the cooling effect of the atmosphere on the human
body.

Buildings

When controlling the climate in buildings using HVAC systems the key is to
control the relative humidity in a comfortable range - low enough to be
comfortable but high enough to avoid problems associated with very dry air.

When the temperature is high and the relative humidity is low, evaporation of
water is rapid; soil dries, wet clothes hung on a line or rack dry quickly, and
perspiration readily evaporates from the skin. Wooden furniture can shrink causing
the paint that covers these surfaces to fracture.
When the temperature is high and the relative humidity is high, evaporation of
water is slow. When relative humidity approaches 100 percent, condensation can
occur on surfaces, leading to problems with mold, corrosion, decay, and other
moisture-related deterioration.

Certain production and technical processes and treatments in factories,

laboratories, hospitals and other facilities require specific relative humidity levels
to be maintained using humidifiers, dehumidifiers and associated control systems.

Vehicles

The same basic principles as in buildings, above, apply. In addition there may be
safety considerations. For instance high humidity inside a vehicle can lead to
problems of condensation, such as misting of windshields and shorting of electrical
components.

In sealed vehicles and pressure vessels such as pressurized airliners, submersibles

and spacecraft these considerations may be critical to safety, and complex
environmental control systems including equipment to maintain pressure are
needed. For example, airliner fuselages are susceptible to corrosion from humidity,
and avionics are susceptible to condensation, and as the failure of either is
potentially catastrophic, airliners operate with low internal relative humidity, often
under 10%, especially on long flights. The low humidity is a consequence of
drawing in the very cold air with a low absolute humidity, which is found at
airliner cruising altitudes. Subsequent warming of this air lowers its relative
humidity. This causes discomfort such as sore eyes, dry skin, and drying out of
mucosa, but humidifiers are not employed to raise it to comfortable mid-range
levels because dry air is essential to safe flight.
Chapter: 7
Conclusion:
We have just developed the instrumental setup for calculating humidity
and dew point. For this we have calibrated the “calibration factor” by
using proper connection of Digital panel meter, hypsometer, Ice box and
thermocouples of cromalalumal wire.
We made whole setup for calculation of humidity and dew point by
using psychrometer, DPM, Ice box, thermocouples, Selector switch,
conical flask.
We observed that the calibration factor of thermocouple of cromalalumal
wire varies between 24.29 – 24.56.
Chapter: 8

 REFERENCES:

1. Book on Refrigeration and air conditioning by

Prof.C.P.Arora, Tata-McGraw-Hill Publishing Company
Limited New Delhi,2006
2. Book on Mechanical measurement and instrumentation
by Sahwney.
3. Birla’s steam table S.I. and M.K.S. units.
4. www.wikipedia.org (Chapter 6)
5. ASHRAE. 1986. ASHRAE handbook, fundamentals.
Am. Soc. Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
Engineers. Atlanta, GA.
6. www.cytsoft.com and www.csgnetwork.org (Chapter 5)