Running head: FORENSIC SCIENCE HISTORY 1

Forensic Science History

Melissa Ivey

CJS 215

April 3, 2017

William Judd
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Forensic Science History

Forensic science is a fascinating subject to many people. Some are intrigued by the

mystery, some are exhilarated by the challenge, and some look for ways to evade detection.

Forensic science is defined as “the application of science to the criminal and civil laws that are

enforced by police agencies in a criminal justice system” (Saferstein, 2013, p. 2). Forensics is an

ever-advancing science. The investigation and prosecution of crimes are largely dependent upon

the tools and techniques utilized by forensic scientists. This paper will address several aspects of

forensic science to include its history and development, influential people, the roles of the

experts, and its capabilities.

History and Development

Forensic science dates back many centuries. The following timeline highlights some of

the more well-known developments in the field:

BCE- Awareness of fingerprints was credited to prehistoric humans in their rock drawings and

paintings (Inman & Rudin, 2000).

Third-century- The earliest record of applying forensics to solve a criminal case occurred in

China when a woman admitted to murdering then burning her husband’s body after a coroner

conducted an experiment on pigs (Saferstein, 2013).

1686- Marcello Malpighi recorded the first notes on fingerprint characteristics but did not fully

understand their value in determining identification (Saferstein, 2013).

1784- First murder conviction using physical matching (Inman & Rudin, 2000).

1810- First documented use of question document analysis (Inman & Rudin, 2000).

1814- Father of modern toxicology, Mathieu Orfila, published his treatise on poisons (Saferstein,

2013).
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1823- John Purkinji published the first paper on fingerprints and proposed a classification system

(Inman & Rudin, 2000).

1828- William Nicol devised the polarizing microscope (Saferstein, 2013).

1835- Henry Goddard used a ballistic comparison to catch a murder suspect (Inman & Rudin,

2000).

1839- Henri-Louis Bayard established the first reliable procedure for detecting sperm under a

microscope (Saferstein, 2013).

1863- First presumptive test for blood developed by Schonbein (Inman & Rudin, 2000).

1877- Thomas Taylor suggested fingerprints could be used as identification (Saferstein, 2013).

1879- Alphonse Bertillon devised a system called anthropometry that uses body measurements

as a method of identification (Saferstein, 2013).

1892- Francis Galton receives the credit for classifying fingerprints (Saferstein, 2013).

1901- Karl Landsteiner discovered the ABO blood types (Farhud & Zarif Yeganeh, 2013).

1905- President Roosevelt instituted the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) (Inman & Rudin,

2000).

1910- Edmond Locard began the first ever police crime laboratory in France (Saferstein, 2013).

1924- August Vollmer formed the first US police crime lab in California (Inman & Rudin,

2000).

1925- Calvin Goddard refined the usage of the comparison microscope for ballistics (Inman &

Rudin, 2000).

1983- Kerry Mullis formulated the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique to copy and

amplify DNA (Inman & Rudin, 2000).

1984- Alec Jeffreys crafted the first DNA profiling test (Saferstein, 2013).
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1986- DNA was first used in a criminal case in England. A teenage boy confessed to the rape

and murder of two girls. Molecular biologist Alec Jeffreys used DNA testing to prove the teen

did not commit the crimes (BBC News, 2009). Later, a suspect was identified and found to be

the actual perpetrator through DNA profiling.

1996- The FBI introduced the AFIS fingerprint database (Inman & Rudin, 2000).

1998- The FBI launched the NIDIS DNA database (Inman & Rudin, 2000).

Influential People

Karl Landsteiner contributed to the field of forensics by discovering that humans have

different blood types. He identified the A, B, and O blood groups in 1901 (Farhud & Zarif

Yeganeh, 2013). Two of Landsteiner’s students, Adriano Sturli and Alfred von Decastello,

discovered the AB blood type a year later. Landsteiner accepted a Nobel Prize in Physiology or

Medicine for this discovery in 1930.

Henri-Louis Bayard is known for his work in microscopy. His research made the

procedure for detecting sperm reliable. Although other techniques for detecting sperm existed,

Bayard was the first to set the standards.

Edmond Locard is best known as the founder of modern forensic science (Hines, 2015).

Locard established the first forensic laboratory in France in 1910. He is also known for

formulating a theory called the exchange principle, that states that every contact leaves a trace.

The work of Locard has spurred many advancements in the field of forensics. For instance,

autopsies, MRI and CT scans, Entomology, biological evidence collection, etc. can all be traced

back to Locard's principle, and these techniques and practices are critical for closing cases with

an arrest and conviction.

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Hans Gross is said to be the founder of Criminalistics and is considered the founding

father of modern criminal profiling (Turvey, 2011). He wrote books that were instrumental to the

field of criminalities. Gross is the first person to include females as suspects and that an

offender’s modus operandi is significant in an investigation.

Calvin Goddard is recognized for his work in ballistics and is considered as the father of

firearms identification. He is also the person responsible for perfecting the comparison

microscope (Fitchett, 2016).

August Vollmer is a renowned figure in forensic science. He is credited with establishing

the first forensics lab in the U.S. in 1923. Vollmer is considered to be the father of law

enforcement (Bond, 2014). His contributions to the field of forensics and modern policing are

unparalleled.

William Nicol was a physicist and geologist who invented the Nicol Prism in 1828. His

observation that a beam of light that passes through crystal becomes polarized led to the design

of the polarizing microscope that is still widely used in forensic science labs to characterize

drugs, fibers, and soils. Another important invention of Nicol's, but is often overlooked, is a

method for preparing samples for microscopic study. Nicol discovered a way to use crystal and

light shown from below to examine not only the surface of specimens but the inner structure as

well ("William Nicol Biography (1768-1851)," n.d.).

Roles of the Forensic Science Experts

Per author Richard Saferstein, forensic scientists can exhibit expertise in a broad range of

areas. Examples include physical evidence, biology, firearms, document examination,

photography, toxicology, latent fingerprint, polygraph, voiceprint analysis, crime scene

investigation, forensic pathology, forensic anthropology, forensic entomology, forensic

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psychiatry, forensic odontology, forensic engineering, and forensic computer and digital analysis

(Saferstein, 2013). A criminalist or forensic scientist typically specializes and becomes proficient

in one discipline due to the extensive knowledge and training it takes to become an expert in a

particular area. For example, the role of scientists in the biology unit is to work with biological

substances such as blood, hair, saliva, and semen for DNA profiling. Firearms experts examine

evidence that pertains to guns and ammunition. Fingerprint examiners identify and process

evidence for latent fingerprints. Criminalists in the physical science unit examine physical

evidence such as tire marks, foot impressions, fibers, explosives, and drugs.

Forensic Science Capabilities

Bottom line, forensic science uncovers the truth. It enables investigators, prosecutors, and

other key personnel to close criminal cases with an arrest and conviction, which in turn, gives

victims and their families justice and some degree of closure. Forensic science is capable of

many things but specifically for collecting, analyzing, and preserving evidence for the judicial

system. It is capable of revealing information about a crime such as who is the culprit, was a

crime in fact committed, and what transpired during the offense (Barnett, 2001).

Conclusion

Forensic science is used in matters of the law. It is intended to be unbiased, objective,

and applicable to either side of legal cases equally. The 19th-Century French Medico-Legalist,

Dr. Brouardel, is quoted as saying, “If the law has made you a witness, remain a man of science.

You have no victim to avenge, no guilty or innocent person to convict or save. You must bear

testimony within the limits of science.” The history of the field is quite extensive, and the

developments are continuous. Prominent figures like Locard, Vollmer, Goss, Goddard, and

others have promoted forensics in substantial ways. Experts play a crucial role in their
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specialized disciplines. Forensic scientists are highly qualified individuals who lend their

expertise to legal proceedings in many areas such as biological and physical evidence, firearms,

documents, and computers. Forensic science is capable of tremendous feats. It can convict or

exonerate an accused person, reveal the truth, validate allegations, provide justice, and right

some of the wrongs carried out by individual members of society.

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References

Barnett, P. D. (2001). Ethics in forensic science: Professional standards for the practice of

criminalistics. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

BBC News. (2009). DNA pioneer's 'eureka' moment. Retrieved from

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/newsnight/8245312.stm.

Farhud, D. D., & Zarif Yeganeh, M. (2013). A brief history of human blood groups. Iranian

Journal of Public Health, 42(1), 1–6. Retrieved from

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3595629/.

Fitchett, B. (2016). Calvin Goddard and the beginnings of modern firearms examination in the

United States. Retrieved from https://www.bevfitchett.us/forensic-science/calvin-

goddard-and-the-beginnings-of-modern-firearms-examination-in-the-united-states.html.

Hines, N. (2015). The godfather of CSI: How forensics changed crime-solving. Retrieved from

http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2015/02/26/the-godfather-of-csi-how-forensics-

changed-crime-solving.html.

Inman, K. & Rudin, N. (2000). Principles and practice of criminalistics: The profession of

forensic science. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Saferstein, R. (2013). Forensic science: From the crime scene to the crime lab (2nd ed.). Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.

Turvey, B. E. (2011). Criminal profiling: An introduction to behavioral evidence analysis.

Cambridge, MA: Academic Press.

William Nicol Biography (1768-1851). (n.d.). Retrieved from

http://www.madehow.com/inventorbios/68/William-Nicol.html.