Introduction to Taxonomy & Systematics

•A binary system → genus + species

•e.g. Homo sapiens (human)

Allium cepa (onion)
Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast)
Introduction to Taxonomy & Systematics

1. Identification
• What is it?
2. Description
• What are its characteristics?
3. Nomenclature
• What is it called?
4. Classification
• Which group does it belong to?
 Taxonomic Hierarchy
(Linnean System)
Human:

CATEGORY TAXON

KINGDOM Animalia

PHYLUM Chordata

CLASS Mammalia

ORDER Primata

FAMILY Hominidae

GENUS Homo or Homo

SPECIES Homo sapiens or Homo sapiens

Introduction to Taxonomy & Systematics

•Study of biological diversity and its classification

•Pioneered by Charles Darwin

•Employs taxonomy and evolutionary biology to arrange

organisms in categories that reflect PHYLOGENY

•PHYLOGENY – evolutionary history of a SPECIES or a

group of species
Introduction to Taxonomy & Systematics

•SPECIES – organisms that can share the same

gene pool and are reproductively separated from
other groups of organisms (Biological concept)
A
C
B
TIMELINE

Phylogenetic tree
The 5-Kingdom & 3-Domain Schemes

The 5-Kingdom Scheme

• proposed by R.H Whittaker in 1969
 Nucleolus

Prokaryote Eukaryote
DNA in nucleoid DNA in nucleus

NO membrane- WITH membrane-

bound organelles bound organelles
1-10 microns in 10-100 microns in
diameter diameter
Ex. Ex.
Bacteria, Protozoa, plants,
mycoplasmas animals, fungi

http://www.fas.org/irp/imint/docs/rst/Sect20/celltypes.jpg
The 5-Kingdom & 3-Domain Schemes

The 3-Domain Scheme

• proposed by Carl Woese in the late 1970’s

EUKARYA

BACTERIA ARCHAEA
The Prokaryotes: Bacteria vs. Archaea
Main Features Bacteria Archaea

rRNA sequences Many unique to bacteria Many match eukaryotes

RNA polymerase Relatively small & Complex; similar to

simple eukaryotes

Introns Absent Present in some genes

Antibiotic sensitivity (to Inhibited Not inhibited (resistant)

streptomycin,
chloramphenicol)

Peptidoglycan in cell Present Absent

wall

Membrane lipids Carbon chains Carbon chains

unbranched branched
Parade of All Things Living

Kingdom Protista
PROTOZOA

•Belong to Kingdom PROTISTA in the 5(6)-Kingdom classification scheme

•‘first animals’

•Unicellular, eukaryotic organisms

•Some are colonial, but there is no cell differentiation

•Comes in different shapes

•Modes of nutrition:

• AUTOTROPHIC – produces own food

• OSMOTROPHIC/ SAPROZOIC – absorbs food

• PHAGOTROPHIC/ HOLOZOIC – feeds on large food particles

PROTOZOA
•Modes of locomotion:

• Flagella

• Cilia

• Direct body movement

•Mode of excretion via CONTRACTILE VACUOLES

•Some have exoskeleton for protection (e.g. foraminiferans & radiolarians)

Some Protozoan Phyla

1. Phylum Ciliophora

2. Phylum Zoomastigophora

3. Phylum Rhizopoda

4. Phylum Sporozoa/ Apicomplexa

1. Phylum Ciliophora

•Presence of cilia as mode of locomotion

Cross-section of a cilium
1. Phylum Ciliophora

•Have 2 type of nuclei:

• Macronucleus
• Large polyploid nucleus
used for general cell
regulation

• Micronucleus
• Small diploid nucleus
used for sexual
reproduction called
CONJUGATION
1. Phylum Ciliophora

•Asexual reproduction is through TRANSVERSE BINARY

FISSION

Paramecium dividing
http://wappingersschools.org/RCK/staff/teacherhp/johnson/visualvocab/BinaryFissionParamecium.jpg
1. Phylum Ciliophora

•Some examples:

Didinium

Paramecium

Vorticella
2. Phylum Zoomastigophora

•Formerly under Phylum Sarcomastigophora with the rhizopodians

•Presence of flagella as mode of locomotion

•Structurally, flagellum is similar to cilium

2. Phylum Zoomastigophora

•Asexual reproduction is through LONGITUDINAL BINARY

FISSION

Leishmania
2. Phylum Zoomastigophora

•Flagellates may be free-living or parasitic

•Some examples:

Trichomonas Giardia Trypanosoma Bodo

Parasitic Free-living
3. Phylum Rhizopoda

•Formerly under Phylum Sarcomastigophora together with the

flagellates

•Asexual reproduction is also through binary fission

•Mode of locomotion is through PSEUDOPODIA, which are

extensions of the cytoplasm

•Types of PSEUDOPODIA

• LOBOPODIA – tubular

• FILOPODIA – thin and slender; may branch but don’t

rejoin

• RETICULOPODIA – thin, net-like, branched

• AXOPODIA – slender, radiating from all over the surface

of the cell
3. Phylum Rhizopoda

•Some examples:

Foraminiferans w/
Amoeba calcareous exoskeleton
(lobopodia) (reticulopodia)

Gromia
Radiolarians w/ (filopodia)
siliceous exoskeleton
(axopodia)
4. Phylum Sporozoa / Apicomplexa

•Parasitic protozoans of animals

•No cilia or flagella (except in gametes)

•Presence of the APICAL COMPLEX

•APICAL COMPLEX - set of secretory and cytoskeletal

structures that enables the young
parasite to enter a host cell
4. Phylum Sporozoa / Apicomplexa

•Asexual reproduction is through MULTIPLE FISSION

4. Phylum Sporozoa / Apicomplexa

•Some examples:

Gregarina

Plasmodium
Parade of All Things Living

Kingdom Animalia
METAZOA
•Belong to Kingdom Animalia in the 5(6)-Kingdom scheme

•Characteristics of animals:

• Eukaryotic

• Multicellular with cells organized into tissues

• Heterotrophic

• Lack cell walls

• Ingest food and digest internally

• Stored food – GLYCOGEN

• Diploid except for gametes

• Motile
METAZOA
•Divided into 2 main groups:

PARAZOA EUMETAZOA

• ‘beside the animals’ • ‘true animals’

• Multicellular animals but • Multicellular with well-

with no well-developed developed tissues
tissues organized into germ layers

• No gastrula stage in • With gastrula stage in

embryo embryo
PARAZOA
1. Phylum Porifera

•sponges

•No true tissues, organs

•Asymmetrical

•All are aquatic/ marine

•Pore-bearing animals

•Types of pores:

• OSTIUM – where water comes in and goes to the

SPONGOCOEL or body cavity

• OSCULUM – water outlet

1. Phylum Porifera

•Asexual reproduction

• Budding

• Gemmule formation
•an asexual, spore-like
reproductive unit in sponges,
capable of overwintering and
developing into an adult sponge
the following summer

•Sexual reproduction

• formation of gametes
Sponge body plan

*Pinacocytes—epidermis
Exoskeleton of sponges

spicules

Spongin fibres
• Collagen fibres
forming networks
Taxonomic classes

a. Class Calcispongiae (Calcarea)

•Spicules made of calcium carbonate (CaCO3)

•Spicules are needle-shaped (MONAXON), 3-rayed (TRIAXON) or

4-rayed (TETRAXON)
Taxonomic classes

b. Class Demospongiae

•Presence of spongin and spicules of silicon dioxide

•Spicules usually monaxon or tetraxon

•Commercially valuable forms (bath sponges) have lost their silica

spicules

Euspongia
Leiodermatium
Taxonomic classes

c. Class Hyalospongiae

•Presence of siliceous spicules (glass-like)

•Spicules usually 6-rayed (HEXAXON), with projections extending at

right angles from a central point

Euplectella
Taxonomic classes

d. Class Sclerospongiae

•Represented by a few species

•Exoskeleton composed of siliceous spicules and spongin fibres plus

a solid skeleton of CaCO3

Acanthochaetetes
(coralline sponge)
EUMETAZOA
1. Phylum Cnidaria/ Coelenterata

•Hydras, jellyfish, sea anemones, corals

•DIPLOBLASTIC – with only 2 layers of tissues

• ECTODERM

• ENDODERM (GASTRODERM)

*Mesoglea – middle layer made of loose cells only

•Symmetry - radial

•Mostly marine with a few freshwater species

•Main cavity is the GASTROVASCULAR CAVITY (GVC)

•Digestive system – incomplete (no anus)

1. Phylum Cnidaria/ Coelenterata

•Possess specialized stinging cells called CNIDOCYTES

bearing organelles called CNIDOCYSTS or NEMATOCYSTS
which can contain toxins to kill or immobilize prey
1. Phylum Cnidaria/ Coelenterata

•There is an alternation of generations between the asexual

POLYP and the sexual MEDUSA
1. Phylum Cnidaria/ Coelenterata

•Sexual reproduction – formation of gametes, usually by the

medusa stage

•Asexual reproduction – budding and strobilization

Strobilization
Budding
Taxonomic classes

a. Class Hydrozoa

•Presence of both the polyp and medusa stage, although the polyp
dominates the life cycle

•Hydra stage may also produce the gametes

•Tentacles are solid

Obelia medusa
Hydra polyp Obelia colonial polyps
Physalia – Portugese man-o-war

The sting of Physalia is

very painful to man and
can cause serious
effects, including fever,
shock, and interference
with heart and lung
action
Taxonomic classes

b. Class Scyphozoa

•Presence of both the polyp and medusa stage, although the

medusa stage dominates the life cycle

•Asexual reproduction is through strobilization

Aurelia
Life cycle of a jellyfish
Taxonomic classes

c. Class Cubozoa

•Presence of both the polyp and medusa stage, although the

medusa stage dominates the life cycle

•Also known as box jellyfishes

•Common in the Philippines and known to cause harmful stings

•Characteristic cuboidal swimming bells with 4 tentacles or 4

clusters of tentacles at each corner
Carybdea
 What to do when stung by jellyfish

•Most jellyfish sting are not deadly, although some may cause ANAPHYLACTIC
SHOCK (severe allergic reaction)

•Get out of water to avoid drowning

•Carefully remove remaining tentacles to prevent further discharge of

nematocysts into the skin

•Apply vinegar or 3-10% acetic acid to disable cnidocytes that have not yet
released their nematocysts

•Do NOT use urine as it will only promote discharge of the nematocysts

•Apply medication such as ANTIHISTAMINES and DIPHENHYDRAMINE to

lessen skin irritation
Taxonomic classes

d. Class Anthozoa

•Absence of the medusa stage

•Gastrovascular cavity is partitioned by distinct sheets of tissues

called SEPTA

•Gametes produced directly by the polyp

•Asexual reproduction through fission

Tubipora Metridium
Pennatula

Antipathes Acropora Lobophyton

Recap

http://tolweb.org/tree/home.pages/structure.html
Animal systematics
!Old phylogeny
 Protostomia
Lophotrochozoa Ecdysozoa
• With trochophore larva, at • Undergo ecdysis (shedding)
least primitively
• With lophophore
2. Phylum Platyhelminthes

•Flatworms – planarians (free-living), flukes & tapeworms (parasitic)

•Body flattened dorsoventrally

•TRIPLOBLASTIC – with 3 layers of tissues

• ECTODERM

• ENDODERM

• MESODERM

•Symmetry - bilateral

•CEPHALIZATION – centralization of the sense organs

2. Phylum Platyhelminthes

•ACOELOMATE – no true body cavity apart from the gut

•Nervous system – ganglionic

•Digestive system – incomplete

•Excretory system – PROTONEPHRIDIA (act as kidneys)

•Reproductive system – mostly hermaphroditic/ monoecious

with well-developed gonads
Taxonomic classes

a. Class Turbellaria

•Mostly free-living (freshwater or marine)

•Body is covered by a ciliated epidermis

•Mouth and muscular pharynx at the ventral posterior region

•Absence of attachment organs such as suckers

•Presence of EYESPOTS which serve as photoreceptors

eyespot

Dugesia
Terrestrial flatworm

Bipalium (hammerhead planarian)

Taxonomic classes

b. Class Trematoda/ Digenea

•Parasitic flatworms with 2 or more hosts

•Body leaf-like in shape

•Usually have 2 suckers or attachment organs

•Majority are hermaphroditic (monoecious); a few are dioecious

Clonorchis
Schistosoma
Taxonomic classes

c. Class Monogenea

•Parasitic flatworms with only 1 host

•Body also leaf-like in shape

•Ectoparasites that attach on gills and skin of fishes

•Possesses attachment organs called PROHAPTORS (anterior)

and OPISTHAPTOR (posterior)
Dermophthirius
Taxonomic classes

d. Class Cestoda

•Parasitic tapeworms that reside in the digestive tract of vertebrates

•Complete absence of digestive tract as they absorb food already

predigested by the host

•PROGLOTTID – a repeating unit made up of sexual reproductive

structures; a series of proglottid is called a STROBILUS

•Presence of a SCOLEX at the anterior end of the strobilus, which

bears hooks and suckers to maintain position in the host gut
Taenia
3. Phylum Mollusca

•Eucoelomate
•have a true COELOM (fluid filled body cavity) which surrounds the
gut and is lined on both sides by mesoderm

Acoelomate

Pseudocoelomate

Euceoelomate
3. Phylum Mollusca

•Soft-bodied animals – snails, clams, chitons, squid, tusk shells

•Aquatic or terrestrial

•Hallmarks of molluscs:

• MANTLE – outgrowth of body surface that drapes over the

animal; secretes the shell in many molluscs

• MUSCULAR FOOT – used for locomotion

• RADULA – rasping organ used to scrape food

Generalized mollusc body plan
3. Phylum Mollusca

•Mostly dioecious

•Respiration – CTENIDIA or gills (aquatic) and lungs (terrestrial)

•Circulatory system – majority OPEN TYPE (blood leaves the blood

vessels and flows freely within the tissues)

•Excretory System - METANEPHRIDIA

Taxonomic classes
a. Class Monoplacophora

•3-6 pairs of ctenidia

•With a single, limpet-like shell

Neopilina
Taxonomic classes
b. Class Polyplacophora

•chitons

•Has 8 transverse plates

Ischnochiton Cryptoplax
Taxonomic classes
c. Class Scaphopoda

•Elephant tusk shells

•Body enclosed in a 1-piece tubular shell

•Presence of a conical foot

•CAPTACULA - tentacles

captacula

Dentalium
Taxonomic classes
d. Class Gastropoda

•Snails, slugs, sea hares

•Has a distinct HEAD-FOOT region which is distinct from the

VISCERAL MASS

•Body usually in a single coiled shell sometimes covered by an

OPERCULUM; others have lost the shell

•Aquatic and terrestrial

Taxonomic classes
d. Class Gastropoda

•Undergo TORSION – the mantle cavity moves from the rear

position and comes to rest over the head, facing forward towards
incoming water
Achatina fulica
Dolabella Laevicaulis

Pomacea
Phyllidia Haliotis Murex

Conus
Architectonica Lambis
Taxonomic classes
e. Class Bivalvia/ Pelecypoda

•Clams, oysters, mussels, shipworms

•2 shells hinged together

and oriented laterally

•No radula

•No distinct head Teredo

Perna
•Filter feeders

Tridacna Pecten
Taxonomic classes
f. Class Cephalopoda

•Squid, octopus, cuttlefish, nautilus

•Closed circulatory system

•Shell reduced or lost in many species

•Some with endoskeleton called PEN

•Foot modified into flexible arms and SIPHON (used for jet
propulsion

•Most have an INK SAC that releases a dark pigmented fluid used
to confuse predators
Taxonomic classes
f. Class Cephalopoda
•With well-developed eyes

•CHROMATOPHORES – cells that overlay reflective cells that

function for communication

•Arms and tentacles have suction cups used for clinging to the
substrate or to objects, including potential prey

•With powerful, beak-like jaws

 Octopus
Nautilus

Sepia Loligo
4. Phylum Annelida
•Eucoelomate

•Segmented worms – marine worms, earthworms, leeches

•Aquatic (marine) or terrestrial

•Exhibits true METAMERISM – repetition of parts

•Coelom used as a hydrostatic skeleton

•Presence of 1 or more pairs of chitinous bristles called SETAE for

each segment; setae help worms attach to the surface and prevent
backsliding during peristaltic motion

•in some, the setae are borne on fleshy outgrowths called

PARAPODIA
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&source=imgres&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjvvuWXpoHlAhWY7GEKHZSBD6UQjRx6BAgBEAQ&url=https%3A%
2F%2Fslideplayer.com%2Fslide%2F8666706%2F&psig=AOvVaw1qdsRA8pDBPdA8752U8COf&ust=1570233519107221
4. Phylum Annelida

•Excretory system – METANEPHRIDIA

•Monoecious or dioecious

•With CLOSED circulatory system – blood does not leave the blood
vessels
Taxonomic classes

a. Class Polychaeta

•Contain paddle-like and highly vascularized PARAPODIA where

setae arise and are used for movement and respiration
Parapodia

Setae

•Mostly marine

•With a distinguishable head with tentacles

•Sexes separate
Eunice

Nereis

Sabella
Taxonomic classes

b. Class Oligochaeta (sometimes grouped under Clitellata)

•Setae are fewer in number and there are NO parapodia

setae

•Presence of a CLITELLUM
•a thickened glandular section of
the body wall that secretes a
"cocoon" or capsule into which both
eggs and sperm are deposited and
which acts as an incubator for the
embryonic worms.
Taxonomic classes

b. Class Oligochaeta

•Monoecious/ hermaphroditic

Lumbricus
Taxonomic classes

c. Class Hirudinea (sometimes grouped under Clitellata)

•There are NO parapodia or setae present

•Clitellum also present

•Monoecious/ hermaphroditic
Taxonomic classes

c. Class Hirudinea (sometimes grouped under Clitellata)

•Body made up of 34 segments

•Carnivorous; some are HAEMOPHAGIC PARASITIC – feed on

blood of vertebrates

•Possess anterior and posterior suckers for attachment to prey

Taxonomic classes

c. Class Hirudinea
•Hirudo medicinalis

• Used in the past for bloodletting

• Saliva contains

• ANAESTHETIC – limits the sensations felt by the host

(and thus reduces the chance of the host trying to detach
the leech)

• VASSODILATOR – the blood vessels near the leech to

become dilated, and thus provide the leech with a better
supply

• HIRUDIN – anticoagulant needed to prevent blood clots

(which would block feeding) from forming in the wound
created by its mouthparts
Hirudo medicinalis
Haemadipsa (limatik)

Leech-proofing in the field

5. Phylum Nematoda

•Roundworms (free-living and parasitic)

•Body unsegmented and tapering at both ends

•Presence of a body cavity called the PSEUDOCOELOM derived

from the blastocoel and is NOT lined by the mesoderm

•Pseudocoelom is used as a hydrostatic skeleton; it also paved the

way for the development of internal organs
5. Phylum Nematoda

•Digestive system – complete (with mouth & anus)

•Reproductive system – dioecious or dimorphic

•Excretory system – RENETTE CELLS

•Epidermis secretes a multi-layered CUTICLE made up of collagen

that serves as protection against desiccation or digestive juices of
the host

•Nematodes have longitudinal muscles but NO circular muscles;

hence they move by undulating the body into sinusoidal waves
Taxonomic classes

a. Class Adenophorea (Aphasmida)

•Absence of minute posterior sensory pouches called PHASMIDS

Trichuris

Trichinella
Trichinella life cycle
Trichuris life cycle
Taxonomic classes

b. Class Secernentea (Phasmida)

•Presence of PHASMIDS

Ascaris
6. Phylum Arthropoda
•Insects, crustaceans, centipedes, millipedes, horseshoe crabs

•Probably the most extensive phylum

•Some treat the group as POLYPHYETIC – evolving from different

ancestors

•TAGMATIZATION – fusion of body segments to form major body

regions: HEAD, THORAX and ABDOMEN

•Eucoelomate

•Have jointed appendages

•Circulatory system – open

•Respiratory system – trachea, book gills, book lungs, gills

•Exoskeleton made of CHITIN

6. Phylum Arthropoda

•Eyes may be SIMPLE or COMPOUND

•COMPOUND EYES
•made up of thousands of units called OMMATIDIA
(singular: ommatidium)
Success of Phylum Arthropoda

•Mode of locomotion (wings or limbs) can cover greater area due to

a more efficient set of appendages

•Exoskeleton – lightweight; versatile; jointed appendages have

cushioning effect when animal falls; replaced
through a process called ECDYSIS

•Metamorphosis lessens intra-species competition

•Highly developed sense organs

•Evolution of complex behavioral patterns

Taxonomic subphyla & classes
Subphylum Trilobitomorpha

•Trilobites

•With 3 main body regions

•All members extinct

Taxonomic subphyla & classes
Subphylum Chelicerata

•First pair of head appendages called CHELICERAE specialized as

jaws

•Body divided into the PROSOMA and the OPISTHOSOMA

•No antennae
Taxonomic subphyla & classes
Subphylum Chelicerata

a. Class Merostomata

•Appendages in the opisthosoma

are flattened and modified as
BOOK GILLS for respiration

•Presence of TELSON

•With simple and compound eyes

Tachypleus Limulus
Taxonomic subphyla & classes
Subphylum Chelicerata

b. Class Arachnida

•Has 8 simple eyes

•With 4 pairs of walking appendages

•Respiratory organ – BOOK LUNGS

spider
tick
scorpion
Taxonomic subphyla & classes
Subphylum Mandibulata

•Appendages of the 3rd head segment are modified as mandibles

for chewing or grinding food

•With compound eyes

•With antennae
Taxonomic subphyla & classes
Subphylum Mandibulata

c. Class Diplopoda
•Worm-like, segmented

•1 pair of antennae

•Appendages UNIRAMOUS (unbranched)

•Respiration through TRACHAE

•With 2 pairs of walking appendages per segment

•Live on mosses and other primitive vascular plants

millipedes
Taxonomic subphyla & classes
Subphylum Mandibulata

c. Class Chilopoda
•Also worm-like, segmented

•1 pair of antennae

•Appendages UNIRAMOUS (unbranched)

•Respiration through TRACHAE

•With 1 pair of walking appendages per

segment
centipedes
•Terrestrial carnivores
Taxonomic subphyla & classes
Subphylum Mandibulata

d. Class Insecta/ Hexapoda

•With distinct head, thorax and abdomen

•With 3 pairs of walking appendages from

the thorax

•1 pair of antennae

•Appendages UNIRAMOUS (unbranched)

•Respiration through TRACHAE

•No abdominal appendages

Taxonomic subphyla & classes
Subphylum Mandibulata

e. Class Crustacea

• 2 pairs of antennae
crab
•Appendages BIRAMOUS (branched)

•Respiration through GILLS

shrimp

lobster
barnacles
Deuterostomes

7. Phylum Echinodermata

•Sea stars, brittle stars, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, sea lilies

•Exclusively marine

•Has radial PENTAMEROUS symmetry, which can be divided into 5

equal parts

•Larval stage bilateral; radial symmetry in adults is secondarily

acquired

•No distinct head region → no cephalization or brain formation

•Nervous system – NERVE RING

•Circulatory system – OPEN

7. Phylum Echinodermata

•Asexual reproduction – FRAGMENTATION/

REGENRATION

•Calcareous DERMAL OSSICLES derived from the mesoderm

forms the endoskeleton

•Sexes separate/ dioecious for most

•Digestive system complete

7. Phylum Echinodermata

•Possess a WATER-VASCULAR SYSTEM (WVS), a network of

fluid-filled canals that function in locomotion, feeding and gas
exchange

•MADREPORITE – entrance to the water-vascular system

•TUBE FEET – thin-walled tubular structures in the WVS which are

protracted and retracted to achieve locomotion

ORAL – mouth-bearing ABORAL – opposite of oral side

Tube feet used for locomotion
Taxonomic classes
a. Class Asteroidea

•Arms not sharply demarcated from the central disk

•Ambulacral groove open where tube feet emerge Protoreaster

•Oral side is on the underside; madreporite on aboral side

•Tube feet used for locomotion

•Mostly carnivores

Linckia Luidia Culcita

Acanthaster planci
•Coral predator
Taxonomic classes
b. Class Ophuiroidea

•Arms sharply demarcated from the central disk

•Ambulacral groove closed

•Madreporite on oral side

•No anus (incomplete digestive system)

•Arms used for locomotion Oral

•Mostly deposit feeders

Aboral
Ophiorachna Ophiocoma
Taxonomic classes
c. Class Echinoidea

•NO arms

•Globular (sea urchins) or flattened at varying degrees (heart

urchins, sand dollars and sea biscuits)

•REGULAR URCHINS (sea urchins) have big, movable spines

which articulate on a test or corona

Echinometra
Taxonomic classes
c. Class Echinoidea (contd.)

•IRREGULAR URCHINS (heart urchins, sand dollars and sea

biscuits) flattened and therefore exhibit bilateral symmetry as an
adaptation to a burrowing lifestyle

•Ambulacral regions represent a 5-petal flower

•Anus found on the oral region

Laganum Echinocardium Clypeaster

Taxonomic classes
d. Class Holothuroidea

•NO arms

•Dermal plates/ ossicles microscopic

•Body worm-shaped, being greatly elongated along the oral/ aboral

axis

•Tube feet modified as tentacles

Holothuria Cucumaria
Taxonomic classes
e. Class Crinoidea
•Main body supported above the substrate either by a long stalk
(sea lilies) or by a series of grasping claws called CIRRI (feather
star)

•Only echinoderm where the oral region is directed upwards

•5 arms branching at the base and bearing pinnules

Sea Lily Feather Star

8. Phylum Chordata

•Lancelets/ amphioxus, sea squirts/ tunicates, vertebrates

•Hallmarks of chordates:

• NOTOCHORD for axial support at some point in the life

cycle

• Presence of PHARYNGEAL SLITS/ POUCHES

• DORSAL TUBULAR NERVE CORD

• POST ANAL TAIL

Taxonomic subphyla & classes
Subphylum Urochordata

•Sea squirts/ tunicates

•Notochord and nerve cord found in the larval stage only

•Sessile adults encased in a tunic

•Presence of INCURRENT and EXCURRENT siphons in most

Taxonomic subphyla & classes
Subphylum Cephalochordata

•Lancelet/ amphioxus

•Notochord and nerve cord

found along entire length of the
body and persist throughout life

Brachiostoma
Taxonomic subphyla & classes
Subphylum Vertebrata

•Fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals

•Vertebral column as the main axial support system

•Notochord present mostly in the embryonic stage only

•Presence of paired pharyngeal pouches that are modified into

various structures in the adult

•Presence of central singular heart ventral to the pharynx

 Vertebrate phylogeny

https://evolution.berkeley.edu/admin/media/2/85597_evo_resources_resource_image_251_original.gif
Jawless vertebrates (Agnathans)

•Notochord still support body even after the larval stage

•Vertebral column either absent or

rudimentary

a. Class Myxini

•Hagfish

•Produce slime when agitated

•Mostly blind but with well-developed

organs

•have four pairs of sensing tentacles

arranged around the mouth and two
pairs of tooth-like rasps on the top of
a tongue-like projection
Myxine
Jawless vertebrates (contd)

b. Class Cephalaspidomorphi

•Lamprey

•with a toothed, funnel-like sucking mouth

•are well known for those species which

bore into the flesh of other fish to suck
their blood, but these are a minority

•7 gills slits

• NO paired lateral fins

Petromyzon
Jawed vertebrates

Fishes
c. Class Chondrichthyes

•Cartilaginous fish (skeleton made of

cartilage rather than bone Shark

•With paired lateral fins and nostrils

•Minute scales

•5 – 7 gill slits with no operculum

Ray

Chimaera
Jawed vertebrates

Fishes
d. Class Sarcopterygii

•Bony fish with endoskeleton ossified into bone

•With paired, rounded or lobed fins that are similar to limbs

Lungfish

Coelacanth
Jawed vertebrates

Fishes
d. Class Sarcopterygii

•May have given rise to the limbed/ tetrapod vertebrates

Jawed vertebrates

Fishes
e. Class Actinopterygii

•Bony, ray-finned fish

Chanos
Oreochromis
Jawed vertebrates

Limbed Vertebrates/ Tetrapods

f. Class Amphibia

•Larval development takes place in an external aquatic

environment

•Tetrapods that produce eggs with no anmiotic fluid

•Can respire through the skin

•Generally spend part of their time on land

Rana Bufo Necturus

Jawed vertebrates

Limbed Vertebrates/ Tetrapods

f. Class Reptilia
•With thick, keratinized skin

•Embryos enclosed in eggs with Turtle

amniotic membrane
Snake
•POIKILOTHERMIC/
cold-blooded

•May be polyphyletic
Tuatara

Crocodile Lizard
Jawed vertebrates

Limbed Vertebrates/ Tetrapods

g. Class Aves
•Also with amniotic fluid

•HOMEOTHERMIC/ warm-blooded – can

maintain body temperature Eagle

•With feathers as epidermal outgrowths

•With beaks

•Keratinized skin on feet homologous to reptiles

Owl

Chicken Pigeon
Swan
Jawed vertebrates

Limbed Vertebrates/ Tetrapods

h. Class Mammalia

•Also with amniotic fluid

•HOMEOTHERMIC/ warm-blooded – can

maintain body temperature

•With hair or fur as epidermal outgrowths

•With MAMMARY GLANDS (undeveloped in males)

•In most, development of the embryo is completed within the

reproductive system of the female
h. Class Mammalia

i. Subclass Prototheria
•Egg-laying mammals (monotremes)

Platypus
Echidna
h. Class Mammalia

ii. Subclass Metatheria

•Sometimes placed under Subclass Theria together with the

placental mammals

•Pouch-bearing (marsupial) mammals

•Development of the embryo is completed outside the reproductive

system through the MARSUPIUM (pouch)

•Females have two vaginas

•Males have a two-pronged penis

•Only found in South America (opossum) and Australia (other

marsupials)
 Kangaroo
South American Opossum

Tasmanian Wolf
Tasmanian Devil Koala
h. Class Mammalia

ii. Subclass Eutheria

•Sometimes placed under Sublass Theria together with the

marsupial mammals

•Placental mammals

•Development of the embryo is completed inside the reproductive

system of the female
Flying lemur
Flying fox
Lion

Tamaraw Elephant
Tarsier