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Piled Raft
Piled Raft
Abstract: Integral watertight concrete structures can be an effective and durable solution for underground facilities. The paper presents an
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evaluation of the major causes of and responsibilities for wide through cracks in a large mat foundation. A large number of leaking cracks with
a width of up to 0.8 mm were observed in the mat foundation. Considering the importance of water leaking through the cracks in terms of the
serviceability and durability of watertight concrete structures, emphasis is placed on the effect of early-age temperature rise in mat foundation.
Mitigation strategies to prevent the formation and propagation of early-age through cracks are discussed. The concrete technology methods
are aimed at reducing the concrete temperature by using low-heat generating concrete. In general, when assessing the risk of early-age
cracking, drying and autogenous shrinkage may be ignored. The role of cement type, concrete cover and reinforcement to limit the width
of cracks was analyzed. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)CF.1943-5509.0001130. © 2017 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Watertight concrete; Mat foundation; Thermal contraction; Leaking cracks; Reinforcement.
of cracks), achieved through the design and detailing of the rect loading (Shi et al. 2014). The others may develop in restrained
reinforcement; and concrete elements by volume changes related to thermal or mois-
• With through cracks without crack width control, which are sub- ture contractions. Subsequent unacceptable leakage through the
sequently sealed. mat foundation can occur (Fig. 2).
Cracking is an inherent part of reinforced concrete and, if prop- In the design of structures with serviceability and durability is-
erly controlled, will not be detrimental to the performance of a sues, designers often use the provisions of ACI 318-11 (ACI 2011)
structure (CEN 2004; Kozikowski and Suprenant 2015). The basis rather than the more applicable ACI 350-06 (ACI 2006). Using the
of the design of reinforced concrete is the fact that concrete has ACI 318 provisions alone will not produce a liquid-tight structure
no significant tensile strength and that sufficient reinforcement is (Hanskat 2008).
provided to control crack widths. With a crack width below Current design procedures use reinforced steel not only to carry
0.1 mm, the penetrability is not much greater than that of a matrix. the tensile forces but also to obtain both an adequate distribution of
An increase in the crack width from 0.1 to 0.3 mm results in an cracks and a reasonable limit on crack widths (ACI 2007a).
Fig. 1. Schema of the design and construction of a watertight concrete structure (adapted from Ebeling 2004)
Fig. 2. (a) Groundwater leakage through a crack in a mat foundation; (b) overview of a flooded underground garage (images by Juraj Bilcik)
Fig. 4. Distribution of leaking cracks in the mat foundation sections and sequences (image courtesy of SkyBau)
350
200
150
100
50
0
24 48 72 96 120 144 168
Time [h]
CEM I 42.5 R CEM I 42.5 R C3A free CEM I 42.5 N C3A free
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Fig. 7. Panels in vertical or inclined positions on each side of the CEM I 42.5 N C3A free + pfa CEM III/B 32.5 N
elevator pit reduce constraints in a mat foundation (adapted from
Lohmeyer and Ebeling 2009) Fig. 8. Heat of hydration of selected portland cements and a GGBS
cement
180
and procedure for determining the total heat of hydration of hy- 160 162.2
[cm2] on both surfaces
strength classes which relate to the characteristic (5%) cylinder this would lead to wide cracks. Such cracking may indicate that the
strength fck or the cube strength f ck;cube in accordance with EN reinforcement normal to the crack has yielded (ACI 2007b).
206 (CEN 2015). Ready-mixed concrete marked as spring and In watertight structures, it is expected that the provided area of
summer is designed with a 28-day class C30/37 strength. Labora- steel As should be significantly higher than As;min . Serviceability
tory tests showed that some concrete mixes had strength class C40/ requirements for watertight concrete structures may require nar-
50 (i.e., two classes higher than the designed class and three classes rower crack widths, such as 0.2 mm (Edvardsen 1999; ACI 2004).
higher than the recommended class). No measures were taken to For the project discussed, the required and installed reinforce-
stop the delivery of an inappropriate concrete. ment of ∅16-mm bars at 140-mm centers (As ¼ 28.7 cm2 on both
surfaces) was determined according to the Austrian guideline
Execution Measures (ASCT 2002). As stated previously, several construction, techno-
Execution measures for the reduction of restraints are one of the logical, and execution measures did not meet the requirements of
most economical methods to mitigate the risk of early-age thermal the guideline (concrete strength class, C3 A-free cement, and so
cracking. Options include planning the pour sizes and construction on). Fig. 10 compares the required area of steel As for controlled
sequence, the inclusion of construction joints, heat insulating mea- cracking for different concrete strength classes according to EN
sures, and measures for cooling the concrete before and after its 1992-1-1 (CEN 2004), Model Code 2010 (fib 2012), and ACI
placement (Bamforth 2007). 224.2R-92 (ACI 2004). The calculations for early-age cracking
Minimizing the temperature of the concrete during placement is (5 days after casting) yielded the following results: maximum
one of the most efficient ways to reduce thermal stresses and crack- crack width of 0.2 mm, bars with diameter of 25 mm, cement class
ing. Generally, the lower the temperature of the concrete when it N-normal hardening, concrete cover of 35 mm, and thickness of
passes from a plastic condition to an elastic state upon hardening, mat foundation of 1.0 m.
the lower the tendency toward cracking. In massive structures,
each 6 K reduction of the placement temperature will lower the
maximum temperature of the hardened concrete by approximately
140
Required area of reinforcement As
122.7
sequence induced extensive cracking, mainly in the summer. The
120 115.5
occurrence of cracks is also influenced by curing. The Austrian 111.5
guideline (ASCT 2002) recommends a minimum curing period 110 107.2
of 7 days. The subcontractor was able to prove a 3-day curing time. 97.7 C30/37
100
In the project, a conventional 7-day summer curing by colored pol- 92.4
90
ythene sheets was prescribed to reduce the evaporation of water
from the concrete. Shortening the curing time to 3 days may result 80
35 40 50 55 60 70
in surface or bend cracks from shrinkage or temperature gradients. Concrete cover [mm]
The formation of through cracks is unlikely.
Fig. 11. Effect of concrete cover on the required area of reinforcement
As for C30/37
120 118.2
Required area of reinforcement As
115 116.9
110.9
[cm2] on both surfaces
110
104.5 109.9
105 3% Constructional measures
103.8
100 100.9 Model Code 2010
97.3 8 % Higher concrete strength
95 98.4 ACI 224.2R
90 91.0 92.4 EN 1992-1-1 20 % Larger concrete cover
85 86.0
27 % Type of cement
80
C25/30 C30/37 C35/45 C40/50
Concrete strength class [MPa] 42 % Design of reinforcement
Fig. 10. Required reinforcement area in a mat foundation for different Fig. 12. Quantification of the causes of the excessive amount of leak-
concrete strength classes ing cracks
Concrete specification Type and amount Concrete curing Low control and
of cement coordination level
Design of reinforcement
Fig. 13. Errors responsible for the large number of leaking cracks
Although fewer cracks were observed on the sections concreted Many studies have investigated early-age tensile properties to
in cold weather (January–March), the crack widths in all sections predict cracking, yet many WCS are still leaking. Although many
were greater than 0.2 mm. Thus the winter conditions had a positive papers have addressed the prevention of early-age cracking, rela-
impact on the number of cracks, but the reinforcement amount tively few have been concerned with experiences from failures.
was not able to limit the crack widths to 0.2 mm. When taking into Based on the numerous cracks and the results of investigation of
account the designed area of the reinforcement, the calculated the technical documentation and tests, the following conclusions
early-age thermal crack width wk ¼ 0.84 mm. This corresponds can be made:
closely to the maximum measured value of 0.8 mm. In order to 1. Temperature changes are the main cause of the formation of
limit the crack width to wmax ¼ 0.2 mm, the required area of early-age cracks in massive mat foundations. In general, when
reinforcement should be at least 92.4 cm2 (C30/37 in Fig. 10), assessing the risk of early-age cracking, drying and autogenous
e.g., ∅25=100 mm (98.1 cm2 ). shrinkage may be ignored.
Any reinforcement should be placed as close to the surface as is 2. Instead of using a large amount of reinforcement, it is recom-
consistent with the cover requirements. It was determined that in- mended to reduce the strength and the heat of hydration by re-
stead of the designed concrete cover of 35 mm, the cover was sig- considering the mixture proportions of the massive concrete.
nificantly higher (from 55 to 70 mm). An excessively large concrete The application of portland cement with ground granulated
cover leads to wider cracks. According to EN 1992-1-1 (Section blast-furnace slag can significantly reduce the heat generation
7.3.4), the value of the concrete cover is predominant for the in concrete, and simultaneously reduce the tensile strength of
maximum spacing of cracks, sr;max , and is therefore an important concrete by the formation of early-age cracks.
parameter for calculating the width of cracks. Fig. 11 shows the 3. Minimizing the temperature of fresh concrete during placement
effect of the increased concrete cover from 35 to 70 mm on the is also an efficient way to minimize thermal stresses and
required area of reinforcement As on both surfaces of the mat cracking.
foundation. 4. When higher-strength concrete is used, the amount of reinforce-
Fig. 12 summarizes the underlying causes of the leaking cracks. ment that will be required to achieve the specified crack widths
The quantification process was based on the difference between needs to be increased. The calculations in ACI 224.2R-92 (ACI
the provided and required reinforcement area in order to limit 2004) are more sensitive to an increase in the concrete’s strength
the crack width to 0.2 mm. than are the corresponding CEN and fib standards.
Fig. 13 shows the determination of the project stakeholders’ 5. The quantification of errors showed that the type and amount of
responsibility for a large number of leaking cracks. cement, design of reinforcement, and concrete cover are signif-
The aforementioned errors indicate that most of the crack- icant parameters for the formation of early-age cracks in the in-
control procedures should be considered during the design vestigated mat foundation.
phase. It is the responsibility of the designer to develop effective 6. The leaking cracks in the project discussed were successfully
designs and clear, specific provisions in the project specifications sealed by injecting a polyurethane resin.
(ACI 2001).
A single-component polyurethane injection resin was used to
seal leaking cracks. Injection packers were inserted into holes Acknowledgments
drilled at 45° through the cracks in the concrete mat foundation.
This work was supported by the research project VEGA No. 1/
The injected polyurethane fills the crack through the entire thick-
0583/15 “Analysis of the Reliability Risks in the Design and
ness of the mat. The resin cures to form a flexible and impermeable
Execution of Concrete Structures” and the University Science Park
seal in which further limited changes in crack widths are expected.
of the Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava (ITMS:
26240220084).
Conclusions
Restrained imposed deformation are significant in many concrete
References
structures. However, thermal stresses are particularly important in ACI (American Concrete Institute). (2001). “Control of cracking in con-
massive structures, because early-age thermal cracking often causes crete structures.” ACI 224.R-01, Farmington Hills, MI.
leaks which can seriously reduce the serviceability, durability, and ACI (American Concrete Institute). (2004). “Cracking of concrete members
acceptability of watertight concrete structures. in direct tension.” ACI 224.2R-92, Farmington Hills, MI.