Generation languages

Updated: 06/30/2019 by Computer Hope

A generation language may refer

to any of the following:

1. The first generation languages, or

1GL, are low-level languages that are
machine language.
2. The second-generation languages,
or 2GL, are also low-level assembly
languages. They are sometimes used
in kernels and hardware drives, but
more commonly used for video
editing and video games.
3. The third-generation languages, or
3GL, are high-level languages, such
as C, C++, Java, JavaScript, and
Visual Basic.
4. The fourth-generation languages,
or 4GL, are languages that consist of
 statements similar to statements in a
human language. Fourth generation
languages are commonly used in
database programming and scripts
examples include Perl, PHP, Python,
Ruby, and SQL.
5. The fifth-generation languages, or
5GL, are programming languages
that contain visual tools to help
develop a program. Examples of fifth
generation languages include
Mercury, OPS5, and Prolog.
There are five generation of Programming languages.They are:
First Generation Languages :
These are low-level languages like machine language.
Second Generation Languages :
These are low-level assembly languages used in kernels and hardware drives.
Third Generation Languages :
These are high-level languages like C, C++, Java, Visual Basic and JavaScript.
Fourth Generation Languages :
These are languages that consist of statements that are similar to statements in the human
language. These are used mainly in database programming and scripting. Example of these
languages include Perl, Python, Ruby, SQL, MatLab(MatrixLaboratory).
Fifth Generation Languages :
These are the programming languages that have visual tools to develop a program. Examples of
fifth generation language include Mercury, OPS5, and Prolog.
The first two generations are called low level languages. The next three generations are called
high level languages.
n the computer industry, these abbreviations are widely used to represent
major steps or "generations" in the evolution of programming languages.

1GL or first-generation language was (and still is) machine language or the
level of instructions and data that the processor is actually given to work on
(which in conventional computers is a string of 0s and 1s).

2GL or second-generation language is assembler (sometimes called

"assembly") language. A typical 2GL instruction looks like this:

ADD 12,8

An assembler converts the assembler language statements into machine

language.

3GL or third-generation language is a "high-level" programming language,

such as PL/I, C, or Java. Java language statements look like this:

public boolean handleEvent (Event evt) {

switch (evt.id) {

case Event.ACTION_EVENT: {

if ("Try me" .equald(evt.arg)) {

A compiler converts the statements of a specific high-level programming

language into machine language. (In the case of Java, the output is called
bytecode, which is converted into appropriate machine language by a Java
virtual machine that runs as part of an operating system platform.) A 3GL
language requires a considerable amount of programming knowledge.
4GL or fourth-generation language is designed to be closer to natural
language than a 3GL language. Languages for accessing databases are often
described as 4GLs. A 4GL language statement might look like this:

EXTRACT ALL CUSTOMERS WHERE "PREVIOUS PURCHASES" TOTAL MORE

THAN $1000

5GL or fifth-generation language is programming that uses a visual or

graphical development interface to create source language that is usually
compiled with a 3GL or 4GL language compiler. Microsoft, Borland, IBM, and
other companies make 5GL visual programming products for developing
applications in Java, for example. Visual programming allows you to easily
envision object-oriented programming class hierarchies and drag icons to
assemble program components.
What is Number System?

A number system is a collection of various symbols which are called digits.

Different types of Number System

1. Binary Number System

A binary number system is a system which has a base of two. It means that it has only 2
different symbols that make up its number system.
The 2 symbols are

The numbers that are made in Binary Number System are made up of 0 or 1.
2. Decimal Number System

The number system that we follow is called as Decimal Number System where the base
is 10.The base 10 indicates that there are 10 different symbols that we use.
The ten symbols are:

These symbols are called as digits.

Any number that we form is a combination of the above digits,
1425 – Combination of 1, 2, 3, 4,
494737 – Combination of 4, 9, 4, 7, 3, 7
The number 1486 can be represented as

We represent the numbers in this manner because we are using different digits and
each digit has a different place value depending on its position.

The representation should be in the power of 10’s.

Any two digit ‘a’ and ‘b’ can be represented as

Three digits a, b and c should be represented as

Classification of Number System

A decimal number system has 10 digits but it consists of infinite numbers.
Real Numbers:
 Real numbers represent the actual physical quantities like length, height, weight,
density, etc, in a meaningful figure. These are further classified as,

1. Rational Number: These are the numbers which can be represented in the form of
a/b, where a and b are integers and b is not equal to 0. Rational numbers are either
terminating or recurring in nature.

2. Irrational Number: These are the numbers which cannot be expressed as a/b and
where b is not equal 0. Irrational numbers are neither non-terminating or non-recurring
in nature.

Terminating Numbers: Terminating numbers are those numbers which stop after the
decimal point.

Non- Terminating Numbers: Non- terminating numbers are the numbers which
don’t stop after the decimal numbers.
Recurring Numbers: The part of the number which keeps on recurring again-again is
termed as a recurring number. Generally, non-terminating numbers are classified as
recurring numbers.

Non-recurring Numbers: Non-recurring numbers are those numbers which don’t keep
on recurring again and again.
Types of Numbers –

1. Natural Numbers: It is the set of positive numbers.

2. Whole numbers: It is the set of all natural numbers including 0.

3. Integers: Integers is the set of all whole numbers along with negative numbers.

4. Even Numbers: Set of numbers exactly divisible by 2.

5. Odd Numbers: Set of numbers not exactly divisible by 2.

Factors and Multiples

If a number x divides y perfectly, then x is considered as a factor of y and y becomes
the multiple of x.
For example, 4 is a factor of 16, 18 is a multiple of 6.
Prime Numbers: Prime numbers are the numbers which have no factor other than 1
and itself.

Composite Numbers: Composite numbers are those numbers which have other
factors besides 1 and itself i.e. it has more than 2 factors. Numbers which are not prime
are called as composite numbers.

Note: Except 1 any natural number can be classified as a prime or composite number.

Fractions:

A fraction denotes a part or parts of a unit. It is majorly classified into following types-
 1. Proper Fractions: In a proper fraction the numerator is always less than the
denominator. Proper Fractions are always less than 1.

2. Improper Fraction: In an improper fraction the numerator is more than the

denominator. Improper Fractions are greater than 1.

3. Mixed Fraction: A mixed fraction consists of two parts i.e. The fractions which
consist of two parts i.e. the integer part and a fractional part. All mixed fractions are
improper fractions.

4 Main Types of Number System

The types are: 1. Decimal System

2. Binary System

3. The Octal System

4. The Hexadecimal System.

Type 1. Decimal System:

In decimal system the base (or radix) is 10, since any position can contain one of
ten digits, refer (3) above. The system therefore has a carrying factor of 10 and
each digit indicates a value which depends on the position it occupies, for example;
In 6421 the digit 6 signifies 6 x 1000

In 4621 the digit 6 signifies 6 x 100

In 4261 the digit 6 signifies 6 x 10

and in 4216 the digit 6 signifies 6

The decimal system uses ten digits to record the number. The ten digits are 0, 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 and any number (used) is based upon power of 10.

For example 5281 is made up of:

(5 x 103) + (2 x 102) + (8 x 101) + (1 x 100)

= 5000 + 200 + 80 + 1 = 5281.

Type 2. Binary System:

Whereas decimal system uses ten digits to record the number, the binary system
uses only two digits (for recording the number) that is 0 and 1, and its base is 2
(whereas that of decimal system is 10). Although in everyday life, people generally
use the decimal number system for counting, it is more convenient to use the
binary number system in a computer because electronic components are usually in
one of two states, which can be used to represent 0 and 1, the two digits used in the
binary system.

To elaborate it further:

The computer does not have a large number of symbols for representing data. It
has only two, 0 and 1 (called binary digits or bits). These correspond to the two
electronic or magnetic states used in computer circuits and storage.

For example if a punched paper tape is used in the computer, a hole in a tape may
allow electrical contact to be made (ON) and the absence of a hole in the tape does
not allow electrical contact to be made (OFF). Therefore a hole can represent 1 and
no hole can represent 0. Binary system is more compact than the decimal system of
coding as the latter will need large size of the storage medium and relative
complexity of the reading device.

Given below is the table of construction of Binary numbers:

Conversion of a Decimal Number to Binary Equivalent:

(a) Let the decimal number be 217.

To find the binary equivalent proceed as follows:

Start binary number with last digit. Therefore the binary equivalent of 217 is
11011001.

(b) Convert .8125 into binary number.

(c) Convert decimal number 217.8125 into binary number

ADVERTISEMENTS:

From (a) and (b) above =

Type 3. The Octal System:

The octal system (base 8) and hexadecimal system (base 16) are of importance
because they can be used as a shorthand for binary numbers. This is because three
binary digits can be represented by the numbers 0 to 7 i.e., the octal range, while
four binary digits can be represented by the numbers 0 to 9 and A to F.

(a) Conversion of Octal number into Decimal equivalent

Let octal number be (235)8

Hence (235)8 = (157)10

(b) Conversion of decimal number into octal equivalent

Let the decimal number be 692.625

(c) Convert (413.2)8 into Decimal equivalent

Type 4. The Hexadecimal System:

The hexadecimal system has a base 16 and the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and

letters A, B, C, D, E, F are used. The letters A, B, C, D, E and F represent the
decimal numbers 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15 respectively.

(a) Conversion of decimal number (259.8125)10 into hexadecimal form

(b) Conversion of hexadecimal number B2F.5 into Decimal equivalent.

When hexadecimal is used to represent a binary number, the individual

hexadecimal digits represent successive groups of four binary digits starting at the
point. This is similar to the conversion from binary to octal, in which each set of
three bits is translated to an octal digit.

The formatting toolbar is a toolbar that contains icons on it as shown below. Each of
the icons has a specific purpose that can change the outlook of your document text
when you apply to it.
The formatting toolbar is designed to apply many effects of text. Here is the list of
icons and it function:

Icon Function
Allows you to define a group of paragraph and character formats as a style,
Style Menu
and then the styles in a style sheet.
Click the arrowhead to the right of the font name box to view the list of fonts
Font Menu
available. Scroll down to the font you want and click once to select it.
Click on the white part of the font size box to enter a value for the font size or
click the arrowhead to the right of the box to view a list of font sizes
Font Size
available. Select a size by clicking on it once. A font size of 10 or 12 is best
for paragraphs of text.
Font Style Use these buttons to bold, italic and underline the selected text.
Text can be aligned to the left, center, or right side of the page or it can be
Alignment
justified and distributed across the page.
Line Spacing Allows you to set the amount of space between one line to another line.
Numbering and It is used to set-off and emphasize sections of text and are presented by dots
Bullets or numbers.
Increase/Decrease
Change the indentation of a paragraph in relation to the side of the page.
Indent
Outside Border Add a border around selected text.
Use this option to change the color behind a selected text. The color shown
Highlight on the button is the last color used. To select a different color, click the
arrowhead next to the button.
This option changes the color of the text. The color shown on the button is
Font Color the last color chosen. Click the arrowhead next to the button to select another
color.

To change the font used by selected text

 Select the text that you wish to apply a different font to. This can be any amount of text in the
document from the single character, a word, a sentence, a paragraph, or the entire document.
 From the Format menu, click Font.
 From the Font dialog box, change from the following options:

Text font Specifies the overall look of the character set.

Font Style Determines the emphasis given to a character, i.e. Bold or Italic.
Determines the size of the character in points. The higher the points, the larger
Size
the character will be.
Font Color Determines the color of the text as it appears on the screen.
Determines whether you have None, Single, Double, or Word Only underlining
Underline style
etc.
Determines the underline color of the text appears on the screen. Only available
Underline Color
after you choose the underline style.
Strikethrough A strikethrough line is drawn through selected characters.
Double
Two strikethrough lines are drawn through selected characters.
Strikethrough
Superscript Text is raised above its normal position on the text line.
Subscript Text is lowered below its normal position on the text line.
Shadow Adds a shadow behind the text.
Outline Displays the inner and outer borders of each character.
Emboss Text appears to be raised off the page in relief.
Engrave Text appears to be printed or pressed into the page.
Small caps Text is formatted in capital letters (smaller size).
All caps Text is formatted in capital letters (normal size).
Hidden Characters are hidden on the page.
Preview The effect of the font is displayed before you apply it.
 When finish, click on the OK button or press Enter.

To highlight pre-selected text

 Select the text you wish to highlight.
 Click on the Highlight icon on the Formatting toolbar and the selected text will be displayed
with a yellow box around it.

To remove highlighting from text

 Select the text that the highlighting is to be removed from.
 Click on the Highlight icon on the Formatting toolbar.

To change the color used for highlighting

 Click on the down arrow to the right of the Highlight icon on the Formatting toolbar. This
will display a range of colors that you can select from. Once you have selected an alternative this
will become the default highlight color, until you select a different color.

Editing Tools

The editing toolbar is displayed where content can be added or edited in course sites, and
provides access to commonly used functions such as:

 Format text.
 Insert/edit an image.
 Insert/edit a link.
 Paste content.
 Insert an emoticon.
 View and edit HTML.
 Page preview.
Techopedia explains Mail Merge
Mail merge primarily enables automating the process of sending bulk mail to customers,
subscribers or general individuals. Mail merge works when a data file is stored that includes the
information of the recipients to whom the letter is to be sent. This file can be a spreadsheet or
database file containing separate fields for each different type of information to be merged within
the letter.
The second file is the word document or the letter template. The recipients' information on the
letter template is kept empty. When the mail merge process is initiated, the recipients' data from
spreadsheet or database is fetched and placed within the empty field in the letter, one by one,
until all letters are created.

What is Watermark in MS Word

Watermark is simply that image or text that appears mainly behind the main document.
For instance, watermark documents will normally display the status of the document like
"confidential", ‘Draft" among others. It is important to note that watermarks can be in
form of texts or even images like logo, pictures and other things of value.

Watermarks are normally used to prevent counterfeiting. Documents shared over the
internet have the tendency to be counterfeited and altered as it gets downloaded over
the internet. However, what watermarking does is to prevent or make it difficult for
people to use these documents as their own. Watermarking cannot be removed except
by the original owner and this is why it has proven to be effective against counterfeiting.
It is important to note that Microsoft® Word has some in-built watermarks that can be
chosen. For instance, the in-built watermarks options include draft, confidential and
other functionalities. Understanding what is watermark in MS Word is the first step to
knowing how to insert it in Word. It is easy to insert watermarks as it takes some few
steps.
It is important to note that watermarks can be inserted in all pages of a word document
all at once. The following steps shows how watermark can be inserted in Word
documents.

1. Open your Word document.

2. Click on "Design" tab.
3. Under the "Page Background" menu, go to "Watermark".
4. Check a gallery containing different watermarks, choose the type of watermark you want to
insert by clicking on it and this will reflect on all the pages.
Referencing in Microsoft Word

Microsoft Word comes with a very useful tool to aid you in referencing various publications correctly.
Here is a brief tutorial to help to understand the basics.

The reference tool is found under the reference tab at the top of the screen (A)

First, we need to input the details of the publications you wish to reference. To do this, you need to
press the manage sources button (B). This will bring up the source manager screen. By hitting the NEW
button, you can add the details of whichever type of publication you wish.
The following example shows a fictional journal article (the drop down box allows you to pick the type of
publication);

Once you have input all of your references, you need to hit the COPY button to make them active in your
current document. You can then enter a citation into the body of your essay by using the ‘Insert Citation’
Button (C) which will then allow you to pick your source. E.g. (Writer, 2011)

At the end of your essay, you can easily insert a full bibliography of all of your cited texts with the
‘Bibliography’ button (D). Click on the bibliography, and it will be printed like so;

Bibliography Writer, A. (2011). Referencing in Microsoft Word. Hull University Disability Services, 1.

The referencing tool has more features besides, so experiment and see if there is anything else you
would find useful!
Data Types

Microsoft Excel recognizes four kinds of information: Logical values (TRUE or

FALSE, also called Boolean values), Numerical values, Text values, and Error types.
The four kinds of information are known, in technical parlance, as Data Types.

 The Logical Type:

 Indicates a value of TRUE or FALSE

 A value of zero = FALSE; Any value other than zero =

TRUE

 The Number Type

 All numbers are represented by a Double-Precision

Floating Point value (big decimal numbers).

 Numbers may contain up to 15 significant digits (exclude

zeros on either side of the number).

 Numbers may be as large as 1.79768 X 10308 or as small as

2.2250 X 10-308.

 The number value is stored in the cell. Formatting

determines how the number is displayed, and what level of
precision is displayed. The precision of the value stored in
the cell is not affected by the display format.

 Dates and times are stored as number values.

 The date 1/1/1900 is represented by

the number 1, and successive dates are
numbered as days since that date.

 Times are stored as fractional parts of

days. 1/4 = 1/4th of one day = 24/4 = 6
 hours from the beginning of the day, or
6:00 AM.

 The Text Type

 Text is regarded by the computed as strings of characters

 All characters can be stored as Text (A-Z, a-z, 0-9, !@#$

etc.)

 Data which Excel cannot resolve to either a Number Type

or a Logical Type is stored as Text.

 Excel will recognize a text string of up to 32,768

characters. However, only 1024 can be displayed in a cell.

 Inserting a single quote character as the first character in a

cell will tell Excel to store the data in the cell as Text, even
if it composed entirely of numerals.

 The Error Type

 The error type is returned when Excel encounters an error

in evaluating the contents of a cell.

 The Error Type generally occurs because of a problem in a

formula.
Many tasks you perform in Excel involve comparing data in different cells. For this, Microsoft Excel
provides six logical operators, which are also called comparison operators.

Excel logical operators - overview

A logical operator is used in Excel to compare two values. Logical operators are sometimes called Boolean
operators because the result of the comparison in any given case can only be either TRUE or FALSE.

Six logical operators are available in Excel. The following table explains what each of them does and
illustrates the theory with formula examples.
 Formula
Condition Operator Description
Example

The formula returns TRUE if a value in cell A1 is equal to the

Equal to = =A1=B1
values in cell B1; FALSE otherwise.

The formula returns TRUE if a value in cell A1 is not equal to

Not equal to <> =A1<>B1
the value in cell B1; FALSE otherwise.

The formula returns TRUE if a value in cell A1 is greater than a

Greater than > =A1>B1
value in cell B1; otherwise it returns FALSE.

The formula returns TRUE if a value in cell A1 is less than in

Less than < =A1<B1
cell B1; FALSE otherwise.

Greater than or The formula returns TRUE if a value in cell A1 is greater than
>= =A1>=B1
equal to or equal to the values in cell B1; FALSE otherwise.

Less than or The formula returns TRUE if a value in cell A1 is less than or
<= =A1<=B1
equal to equal to the values in cell B1; FALSE otherwise.

The screenshot below demonstrates the results returned by Equal to, Not equal to, Greater than and Less than
logical operators:

Compare Values with Pie Charts

Show Comparisons with Column Charts

Compare Data with Bar Charts

Track Changes Over Time with Line Charts

Show Trends with Scatter Plot Graphs

Display Two Charts in One with Combo Charts
Represent Data with Pictographs

SUM
your Sum formula should include at least 1 number,
reference to a cell or a range of cells. For example:
=SUM(A2:A6) - adds up values in cells A2 through A6.
=SUM(A2, A6) - adds up values in cells A2 and A6.
- adds up values in cells A2 through A6, and then
=SUM(A2:A6)/5
divides the sum by 5.
In your Excel worksheets, the formulas may look something
similar to this:
AVERAGE
Sums values in cells A2 through A6, and then divides the
result by 5. And what do you call adding up a group of
numbers and then dividing the sum by the count of those
numbers? Yep, an average!
So, instead of typing =SUM(A2:A6)/5, you can simply
put =AVERAGE(A2:A6)

MAX & MIN

The MAX and MIN formulas in Excel get the largest and
smallest value in a set of numbers, respectively. For our
sample data set, the formulas will be as simple as:
=MAX(A2:A6)

=MIN(A2:A6)
COUNT & COUNTA
COUNT function deals only with those cells that contain numbers, the Excel COUNTA function
counts all cells that are not blank, whether they contain numbers, dates, times, text, logical values
of TRUE and FALSE, errors or empty text strings (""):

IF
In simple terms, you use an IF formula to ask Excel to test a certain condition and return one value
or perform one calculation if the condition is met, and another value or calculation if the condition is
not met:

TRIM
It will eliminate all extra spaces in cells but a single space character between words
 LEN
Whenever you want to know the number of characters in a
certain cell, LEN is the function to use:

AND & OR
These are the two most popular logical functions to check
multiple criteria. The difference is how they do this:
 AND returns TRUE if all of the conditions are met, FALSE
otherwise.
 OR returns TRUE if any of the conditions is met, FALSE
otherwise.


CONCATENATE
In case you want to take values from two or more cells and
combine them into one cell, use the concatenate operator (&)
or the CONCATENATE function:

TODAY & NOW

To see the current date and time whenever you open your
worksheet without having to manually update it on a daily
basis, use either:
=TODAY() to insert the today's date in a cell.
=NOW() to insert the current date and time in a cell.
Relative references
By default, all cell references are relative references. When copied across
multiple cells, they change based on the relative position of rows and columns.
For example, if you copy the formula =A1+B1 from row 1 to row 2, the formula
will become =A2+B2. Relative references are especially convenient whenever
you need to repeat the same calculation across multiple rows or columns.

Absolute references
There may be times when you do not want a cell reference to change when
filling cells. Unlike relative references, absolute references do not change
when copied or filled. You can use an absolute reference to keep a row and/or
column constant.

An absolute reference is designated in a formula by the addition of a dollar sign

($). It can precede the column reference, the row reference, or both.

A database management system (DBMS) is a software package designed to define,

manipulate, retrieve and manage data in a database. A DBMS generally manipulates
the data itself, the data format, field names, record structure and file structure. It also
defines rules to validate and manipulate this data.

A DBMS relieves users of framing programs for data maintenance. Fourth-generation

query languages, such as SQL, are used along with the DBMS package to interact with
a database.

Some DBMS examples include MySQL, PostgreSQL, Microsoft Access,

SQL Server, FileMaker, Oracle, RDBMS, dBASE, Clipper, and FoxPro.
Since there are so many database management systems available, it is
important for there to be a way for them to communicate with each
other. For this reason, most database software comes with an Open
Database Connectivity (ODBC) driver that allows the database to
integrate with other databases. For example, common SQL statements
such as SELECT and INSERT are translated from a program's
proprietary syntax into a syntax other databases can understand.
Components of DBMS: The DBMS has five important components in it which plays a
major role in it and they are as follows:

 The hardware is nothing but the actual computer system which is used for keeping and
accessing database and DBMS hardware has the secondary storage devices like the hard
disks, database machines. These secondary storage devices are designed specifically to
support the database.
 Software is the actual DBMS and between the actual stored data and the users of the
system there is a presence of a layer of software called DBMS. It can control the access
and can maintain the consistency of the information.
 The most vital component of the DBMS environment is none other than the data from
the user point of view. It acts as a machine between the machine components and the
user components, database should contain all the data needed by the organization i.e.
user.
 Well, user can access the data on demand by using the applications and interfaces
provided by the database management system

DBMS Database Models

A Database model defines the logical design and structure of a database and defines
how data will be stored, accessed and updated in a database management system.
While theRelational Model is the most widely used database model, there are other
models too:

 Hierarchical Model

 Network Model

 Entity-relationship Model
  Relational Model

Hierarchical Model
This database model organises data into a tree-like-structure, with a single root, to
which all the other data is linked. The heirarchy starts from the Root data, and expands
like a tree, adding child nodes to the parent nodes.

In this model, a child node will only have a single parent node.

This model efficiently describes many real-world relationships like index of a book,
recipes etc.

In hierarchical model, data is organised into tree-like structure with one one-to-many
relationship between two different types of data, for example, one department can have
many courses, many professors and of-course many students.

Network Model
This is an extension of the Hierarchical model. In this model data is organised more like
a graph, and are allowed to have more than one parent node.
In this database model data is more related as more relationships are established in this
database model. Also, as the data is more related, hence accessing the data is also
easier and fast. This database model was used to map many-to-many data
relationships.

This was the most widely used database model, before Relational Model was
introduced.

Entity-relationship Model
In this database model, relationships are created by dividing object of interest into entity
and its characteristics into attributes.

Different entities are related using relationships.

E-R Models are defined to represent the relationships into pictorial form to make it
easier for different stakeholders to understand.

This model is good to design a database, which can then be turned into tables in
relational model(explained below).

Let's take an example, If we have to design a School Database, then Student will be
anentity with attributes name, age, address etc. As Address is generally complex, it
can be another entity with attributes street name, pincode, city etc, and there will be a
relationship between them.
Relationships can also be of different types. To learn about E-R Diagrams in details,
click on the link.
Relational Model
In this model, data is organised in two-dimensional tables and the relationship is
maintained by storing a common field.

This model was introduced by E.F Codd in 1970, and since then it has been the most
widely used database model, infact, we can say the only database model used around
the world.

The basic structure of data in the relational model is tables. All the information related to
a particular type is stored in rows of that table.

Hence, tables are also known as relations in relational model.

In the coming tutorials we will learn how to design tables, normalize them to reduce data
redundancy and how to use Structured Query language to access data from tables.
Following are some of important functions of an operating System.

Memory Management
Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main Memory.
Main memory is a large array of words or bytes where each word or byte has its own
address.
Main memory provides a fast storage that can be accessed directly by the CPU. For a
program to be executed, it must in the main memory. An Operating System does the
following activities for memory management −
 Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by whom, what part are not in
use.

 In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get memory when and how much.

 Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so.

 De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it or has been terminated.

Processor Management
In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process gets the processor
when and for how much time. This function is called process scheduling. An
Operating System does the following activities for processor management −
 Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program responsible for this task is
known as traffic controller.

 Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.

 De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.

Device Management
An Operating System manages device communication via their respective drivers. It
does the following activities for device management −
 Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known as the I/O
controller.

 Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.

 Allocates the device in the efficient way.

 De-allocates devices.

File Management
A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage.
These directories may contain files and other directions.
An Operating System does the following activities for file management −
 Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective facilities are often
known as file system.

 Decides who gets the resources.

  Allocates the resources.

 De-allocates the resources.

Other Important Activities

Following are some of the important activities that an Operating System performs −
 Security − By means of password and similar other techniques, it prevents unauthorized
access to programs and data.

 Control over system performance − Recording delays between request for a service and
response from the system.

 Job accounting − Keeping track of time and resources used by various jobs and users.

 Error detecting aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other debugging
and error detecting aids.

 Coordination between other softwares and users − Coordination and assignment of

compilers, interpreters, assemblers and other software to the various users of the computer
systems.

Types of Operating system

Batch Operating System
Some computer processes are very lengthy and time-consuming. To speed the same
process, a job with a similar type of needs are batched together and run as a group.

The user of a batch operating system never directly interacts with the computer. In
this type of OS, every user prepares his or her job on an offline device like a punch
card and submit it to the computer operator.

Multi-Tasking/Time-sharing Operating systems

Time-sharing operating system enables people located at a different terminal(shell) to
use a single computer system at the same time. The processor time (CPU) which is
shared among multiple users is termed as time sharing.

Real time OS
A real time operating system time interval to process and respond to inputs is very
small. Examples: Military Software Systems, Space Software Systems.
 Distributed Operating System
Distributed systems use many processors located in different machines to provide
very fast computation to its users.

Network Operating System

Network Operating System runs on a server. It provides the capability to serve to
manage data, user, groups, security, application, and other networking functions.

Mobile OS
Mobile operating systems are those OS which is especially that are designed to power
smartphones, tablets, and wearables devices.

Some most famous mobile operating systems are Android and iOS, but others include
BlackBerry, Web, and watchOS.

An IT network connects all your devices, plus other peripheral equipment such as
printers
To build a network you will need a range of equipment including the following:
 Cables and connectors. These link together the computers, printers, servers and other
equipment on your network.
 A router. This manages network traffic, ensuring devices can communicate with each other
via both wired and wireless connections, and provides internet connectivity.
 A wireless access point (optional). This will extend your wireless network if the router is
incapable of offering coverage in certain parts of the building.
 An internet connection. This could be a faster fibre connection or dedicated leased line.
 A hardware firewall. This creates a secure barrier between your network and the internet,
blocking security threats. Networks sometimes include an on-site network server which runs
central applications, acts as an email server and provides file storage.

Types of Network Topology

Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting
various nodes(sender and receiver) through lines of connection.
BUS Topology
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is
connected to single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear
Bus topology.

Features of Bus Topology

1. It transmits data only in one direction.

2. Every device is connected to a single cable

Advantages of Bus Topology

1. It is cost effective.
2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
3. Used in small networks.
4. It is easy to understand.
5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

1. Cables fails then whole network fails.

2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network
decreases.
 3. Cable has a limited length.
4. It is slower than the ring topology.

RING Topology
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to
another computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbours for
each device.

Features of Ring Topology

1. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes,
because if someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring
topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to
reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the
network.
 2. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2
connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
3. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite
direction in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to
keep the network up.
4. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has
to pass through each node of the network, till the destination node.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as

only the nodes having tokens can transmit data.
2. Cheap to install and expand

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.

2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

STAR Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable.
This hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.
Features of Star Topology

1. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.

2. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
3. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.

Advantages of Star Topology

1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.

2. Hub can be upgraded easily.
3. Easy to troubleshoot.
4. Easy to setup and modify.
5. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. Cost of installation is high.

2. Expensive to use.
 3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend
on the hub.
4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

MESH Topology
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are
connected to each other. Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.

There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are :

1. Routing
2. Flooding

MESH Topology: Routing

In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like routing
logic to direct the data to reach the destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing
logic which has information about the broken links, and it avoids those node etc. We
can even have routing logic, to re-configure the failed nodes.

MESH Topology: Flooding

In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no routing logic
is required. The network is robust, and the its very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads
to unwanted load over the network.
Types of Mesh Topology

1. Partial Mesh Topology : In this topology some of the systems are connected in
the same fashion as mesh topology but some devices are only connected to two
or three devices.
2. Full Mesh Topology : Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each
other.

Features of Mesh Topology

1. Fully connected.
2. Robust.
3. Not flexible.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

1. Each connection can carry its own data load.

2. It is robust.
3. Fault is diagnosed easily.
4. Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

1. Installation and configuration is difficult.

2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Bulk wiring is required.

TREE Topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also
called hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.

Features of Tree Topology

1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.

2. Used in Wide Area Network.

Advantages of Tree Topology

1. Extension of bus and star topologies.

2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
3. Easily managed and maintained.
 4. Error detection is easily done.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

1. Heavily cabled.
2. Costly.
3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
4. Central hub fails, network fails.

HYBRID Topology
It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies. For
example if in an office in one department ring topology is used and in another star
topology is used, connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (ring
topology and star topology).
Features of Hybrid Topology

1. It is a combination of two or topologies

2. Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included
Advantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.

2. Effective.
3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.
4. Flexible.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Complex in design.
2. Costly.

Classification of Memory in computer

This section provides a classification of memories. There are two main types of
memories i.e. RAM and ROM. Following tree diagram shows the classification
of Memory:

Classification of memory
 ROM ( Read Only Memory):
The first classification of memory is ROM. The data in this memory can only be
read, no writing is allowed. It is used to store permanent programs. It is a
nonvolatile type of memory. The classification of ROM memory is as follows:

 Masked ROM
 PROM
 EPROM
 EEPROM
a) Masked ROM: the program or data are permanently installed at the time of
manufacturing as per requirement. The data can not be altered. The process of
permanent recording is expensive but economic for large quantities.
b) PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory): The basic function is same
as that of masked ROM. but in PROM, we have fuse links. Depending upon the
bit pattern, the fuse can be burnt or kept intact. This job is performed by PROM
programmer.
To do this, it uses high current pulse between two lines. Because of high
current, the fuse will get burnt; effectively making two lines open. Once a
PROM is programmed we cannot change connections, only a facility provided
over masked ROM is, the user can load his program in it. The disadvantage is a
chance of regrowing of the fuse and changes the programmed data because of
aging.

c) EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory): the EPROM is

programmable by the user. It uses MOS circuitry to store data. They store 1’s
and 0’s in form of charge. The information stored can be erased by exposing the
memory to ultraviolet light which erases the data stored in all memory locations.
For ultraviolet light, a quartz window is provided which is covered during
normal operation. Upon erasing it can be reprogrammed by using EPROM
programmer. This type of memory is used in a project developed and for
experiment use. The advantage is it can be programmed erased and
reprogrammed. The disadvantage is all the data get erased even if you want to
change single data bit.
d) EEPROM: EEPROM stands for Electrically erasable programmable read
only memory. This is similar to EPROM except that the erasing is done by
electrical signals instead of ultraviolet light. The main advantage is the memory
location can be selectively erased and reprogrammed. But the manufacturing
process is complex and expensive so do not commonly used.

RAM (Random Access Memory):

The second classification of memory is RAM. The RAM is also called as

read/write memory. The RAM is a volatile type of memory. It allows the
programmer to read or write data. If the user wants to check the execution of
any program, user feeds the program in RAM memory and executes it. The
result of execution is then checked by either reading memory location contents
or by register contents.

Following is the classification of RAM memory. It is available in two types:

a) SRAM (Static RAM): SRAM consists of the flip-flop; using either transistor
or MOS. for each bit we require one flip-flop. Bit status will remain as it is;
unless and until you perform next write operation or power supply is switched
off.
Advantages of SRAM:
 Fast memory (less access time)
 Refreshing circuit is not required.
Disadvantages of SRAM:

 Low package density

 Costly
b) DRAM (Dynamic RAM): In this type of memory a data is stored in form of
charge in capacitors. When data is 1, the capacitor will be charged and if data is
0, the capacitor will not be charged. Because of capacitor leakage currents, the
data will not be held by these cells. So the DRAMs require refreshing of
memory cells. It is a process in which same data is read and written after a fixed
interval.
Advantages of DRAM:

 High package density

 Low cost
Disadvantages of DRAM:

 Required refreshing circuit to maintain or refresh charge on the capacitor, every

after few milliseconds.

Information Technology Act, 2000

The Information Technology Act, 2000 or ITA, 2000 or IT Act, was
notified on October 17, 2000. It is the law that deals with cybercrime
and electronic commerce in India.
Information Technology Act, 2000
In 1996, the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law
(UNCITRAL) adopted the model law on electronic commerce (e-
commerce) to bring uniformity in the law in different countries.

Further, the General Assembly of the United Nations recommended

that all countries must consider this model law before making changes
to their own laws. India became the 12th country to enable
cyber law after it passed the Information Technology Act, 2000.

While the first draft was created by the Ministry of

Commerce, Government of India as the ECommerce Act, 1998, it was
redrafted as the ‘Information Technology Bill, 1999’, and passed in
May 2000.

Objectives of the Act

The Information Technology Act, 2000 provides legal recognition to
the transaction done via electronic exchange of data and other
electronic means of communication or electronic commerce
transactions.

This also involves the use of alternatives to a paper-based method

ofcommunication and information storage to facilitate the electronic
filing of documents with the Government agencies.

Further, this act amended the Indian Penal Code 1860, the
Indian Evidence Act 1872, the Bankers’ Books Evidence Act 1891,
and the Reserve Bank of India Act 1934. The objectives of the Act are
as follows:
 i. Grant legal recognition to all transactions done via electronic
exchange of data or other electronic means of communication or e-
commerce, in place of the earlier paper-based method of
communication.
ii. Give legal recognition to digital signatures for the authentication of
any information or matters requiring legal authentication
iii. Facilitate the electronic filing of documents with Government
agencies and also departments
iv. Facilitate the electronic storage of data
v. Give legal sanction and also facilitate the electronic transfer of funds
betweenbanks and financial institutions
vi. Grant legal recognition to bankers under the Evidence Act, 1891 and
theReserve Bank of India Act, 1934, for keeping the books of
accounts in electronic form.

Features of the Information Technology Act, 2000

a. All electronic contracts made through secure electronic channels are
legally valid.
b. Legal recognition for digital signatures.
c. Security measures for electronic records and also digital signatures
are in place
d. A procedure for the appointment of adjudicating officers for holding
inquiries under the Act is finalized
e. Provision for establishing a Cyber Regulatory Appellant Tribunal
under the Act. Further, this tribunal will handle all appeals made
against the order of the Controller or Adjudicating Officer.
f. An appeal against the order of the Cyber Appellant Tribunal is
possible only in the High Court
g. Digital Signatures will use an asymmetric cryptosystem and also a
hash function
h. Provision for the appointment of the Controller of Certifying
Authorities (CCA) to license and regulate the working of Certifying
Authorities. The Controller to act as a repository of all digital
signatures.
i. The Act applies to offences or contraventions committed outside
India
j. Senior police officers and other officers can enter any public place
and search and arrest without warrant
k. Provisions for the constitution of a Cyber Regulations Advisory
Committee to advise the Central Government and Controller.
Applicability and Non-Applicability of the Act
Applicability

According to Section 1 (2), the Act extends to the entire country,

which also includes Jammu and Kashmir. In order to include Jammu
and Kashmir, the Act uses Article 253 of the constitution. Further, it
does not take citizenship into account and provides extra-territorial
jurisdiction.

Section 1 (2) along with Section 75, specifies that the Act is applicable
to any offence or contravention committed outside India as well. If the
conduct of person constituting the offence involves a computer or a
computerized system or network located in India, then irrespective of
his/her nationality, the person is punishable under the Act.
Lack of international cooperation is the only limitation of
this provision.

Non-Applicability

According to Section 1 (4) of the Information Technology Act, 2000,

the Act is not applicable to the following documents:

1. Execution of Negotiable Instrument under Negotiable Instruments

Act, 1881, except cheques.
2. Execution of a Power of Attorney under the Powers of Attorney Act,
1882.
3. Creation of Trust under the Indian Trust Act, 1882.
4. Execution of a Will under the Indian Succession Act, 1925 including
any other testamentary disposition
by whatever name called.
5. Entering into a contract for the sale of conveyance of immovable
property or any interest in such property.
6. Any such class of documents or transactions as may be notified by
the Central Government in the Gazette.

What is Cloud Computing?

Cloud computing is the on-demand delivery of compute power, database, storage,
applications, and other IT resources via the internet with pay-as-you-go pricing.

Whether you are using it to run applications that share photos to millions of mobile users or to
support business critical operations, a cloud services platform provides rapid access to flexible and
low cost IT resources. With cloud computing, you don’t need to make large upfront investments in
hardware and spend a lot of time on the heavy lifting of managing that hardware. Instead, you can
provision exactly the right type and size of computing resources you need to power your newest idea
or operate your IT department. You can access as many resources as you need, almost instantly,
and only pay for what you use.

What is Data Warehousing?

A data warehousing is defined as a technique for collecting and managing data from
varied sources to provide meaningful business insights. It is a blend of technologies
and components which aids the strategic use of data.

It is electronic storage of a large amount of information by a business which is

designed for query and analysis instead of transaction processing. It is a process of
transforming data into information and making it available to users in a timely manner
to make a difference.

Functions of Data Warehouse Tools and Utilities

The following are the functions of data warehouse tools and utilities −
 Data Extraction − Involves gathering data from multiple heterogeneous sources.

 Data Cleaning − Involves finding and correcting the errors in data.

 Data Transformation − Involves converting the data from legacy format to warehouse
format.

 Data Loading − Involves sorting, summarizing, consolidating, checking integrity, and

building indices and partitions.

 Refreshing − Involves updating from data sources to warehouse.

Definition of 'Data Mining'

Definition: In simple words, data mining is defined as a process used to extract usable data from a larger
set of any raw data. It implies analysing data patterns in large batches of data using one or more
software. Data mining has applications in multiple fields, like science and research. As an application of
data mining, businesses can learn more about their customers and develop more effective strategies
related to various business functions and in turn leverage resources in a more optimal and insightful
manner. This helps businesses be closer to their objective and make better decisions. Data mining
involves effective data collection and warehousing as well as computer processing. For segmenting the
data and evaluating the probability of future events, data mining uses sophisticated mathematical
algorithms. Data mining is also known as Knowledge Discovery in Data (KDD).

Description: Key features of data mining:

• Automatic pattern predictions based on trend and behaviour analysis.

• Prediction based on likely outcomes.

• Creation of decision-oriented information.

• Focus on large data sets and databases for analysis.

• Clustering based on finding and visually documented groups of facts not previously known.

The Data Mining Process: Technological Infrastructure Required: 1. Database Size: For creating a more
powerful system more data is required to processed and maintained. 2. Query complexity: For querying
or processing more complex queries and the greater the number of queries, the more powerful system
is required. Uses: 1. Data mining techniques are useful in many research projects, including
mathematics, cybernetics, genetics and marketing. 2. With data mining, a retailer could manage and use
point-of-sale records of customer purchases to send targeted promotions based on an individual’s
purchase history. The retailer could also develop products and promotions to appeal to specific
customer segments based on mining demographic data from comment or warranty cards.