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Interest Rate Swaps

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These Derivatives Use $420 Trillion in Bonds

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BY KIMBERLY AMADEO

Updated May 28, 2019

An interest rate swap is a contract between two parties to exchange all future interest
rate payments forthcoming from a bond or loan. It's between corporations, banks, or
investors. Swaps are derivative contracts. The value of the swap is derived from the
underlying value of the two streams of interest payments.

Swaps are like exchanging the value of the bonds without going through the legalities of
buying and selling actual bonds. Most swaps are based on bonds that have adjustable-
rate interest payments that change over time. Swaps allow investors to offset the risk of
changes in future interest rates.

Explained

The most common is the vanilla swap. It's when a one party swaps an adjustable-rate
payment stream with the other party's fixed-rate payments.
There are a few terms used:

 The receiver or seller swaps the adjustable-rate payments. The payer swaps the fixed-
rate payments.
 The notional principle is the value of the bond. It must be the same size for both parties.
They only exchange interest payments, not the bond itself.
 The tenor is the length of the swap. Most tenors are from one to 15 years. The contract
can be shortened at any time if interest rates go haywire.
 Market makers or dealers are the large banks that put swaps together. They act as
either the buyer or seller themselves. Counterparties only have to worry about the
creditworthiness of the bank and not that of the other counterparty. Instead of charging a
fee, banks set up bid and ask prices for each side of the deal. In the past, receivers and
sellers either found each other or were brought together by banks. These banks charged
a fee for administering the contract.

The net present value of the two payment streams must be the same. That guarantees
that each party pays the same over the length of the bond.

The NPV calculates today's value of all total payments. It's done by estimating the
payment for each year in the future for the life of the bond. The future payments are
discounted to account for inflation. The discount rate also adjusts for what the money
would have returned if it were in a risk-free investment, such as Treasury bonds.

The NPV for the fixed-rate bond is easier to calculate because the payment is the same
each year. The adjustable-rate bond payment stream is based on Libor, which can
change. Based on what they know today, both parties have to agree then on what they
think will probably happen with interest rates.

Advantages

The adjustable-rate payment is tied to the Libor, which is the interest rate banks charge
each other for short-term loans. Libor is based on the fed funds rate. The receiver may
have a bond with low interest rates that are barely above Libor. But it may prefer the
predictability of fixed payments even if they are slightly higher. Fixed rates allow the
receiver to forecast its earnings more accurately. This elimination of risk will often boost
its stock price. The stable payment stream allows the business to have a smaller
emergency cash reserve, which it can plow back.

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Banks need to match their income streams with their liabilities. Banks make a lot of
fixed-rate mortgages. Since these long-term loans aren’t paid back for years, the banks
must take out short-term loans to pay for day-to-day expenses. These loans have
floating rates. For this reason, the bank may swap its fixed-rate payments with a
company's floating-rate payments. Since banks get the best interest rates, they may
even find that the company's payments are higher than what the bank owes on its short-
term debt.

That's a win-win for the bank.

The payer may have a bond with higher interest payments and seek to lower payments
that are closer to Libor. It expects rates to stay low so it is willing to take the additional
risk that could arise in the future.

Similarly, the payer would pay more if it just took out a fixed-rate loan. In other words,
the interest rate on the floating-rate loan plus the cost of the swap is still cheaper than
the terms it could get on a fixed-rate loan.

Disadvantages

Hedge funds and other investors use interest rate swaps to speculate. They may
increase risk in the markets because they use leverage accounts that only require a
small down-payment.
They offset the risk of their contract by another derivative. That allows them to take on
more risk because they don't worry about having enough money to pay off the derivative
if the market goes against them.

If they win, they cash in. But if they lose, they can upset the overall market functioning
by requiring a lot of trades at once.

Example

1. Country Bank pays Town Bank payments based on an 8% fixed rate.

2. Town Bank pays Country Bank the rate on Libor plus 2%.
3. The tenor is for three years with payments due every six months.
4. Both companies have a Notional Principle of $1 million.

Period Libor Rate Town Bank Pays Country Bank Pays

0 4%

1 3% $30,000 $40,000

2 4% $25,000 $40,000

3 5% $30,000 $40,000

4 7% $35,000 $40,000

5 8% $45,000 $40,000

6 $50,000 $40,000

(Source: “Interest Rate Swap,” New York University Stern School of Business, 1999.)

Effect on the U.S. Economy

According to the Bank for International Settlements, there are $421 trillion in loans and
bonds that are involved in swaps. This is by far the bulk of the $692 trillion over-the-
counter derivatives market. It's estimated that derivatives trading is worth $600 trillion.
This is 10 times more than the total economic output of the entire world. In fact, 92% of
the world's 500 largest companies use them to lower risk.
 For example, a futures contract can promise delivery of raw materials at an agreed
price. This way the company is protected if prices rise. They can also write contracts to
protect themselves from changes in exchange rates and interest rates.

Like most derivatives, these contracts are traded over the counter. Unlike the bonds that
they are based on, they are not traded at an exchange. As a result, no one knows how
many exist or what their impact is on the economy.

In Depth: Subprime Crisis Causes | Derivatives' Role in 2008 Crisis | LTCM Hedge
Fund Crisis

TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXPAND

 Explained
 Advantages
 Disadvantages
 Example
 Effect on the U.S. Economy

Should You Buy a Fixed Income Investment?

What Makes Derivatives So Dangerous?

5 Different Types of Bonds, the Durations and Risk Levels

What Is Libor and How Does It Affect You?


 Consider Floating Rate Bonds as an Investment

How the Rate Banks Charge Each Other Warns of Crisis

List of Floating Rate ETFs: FLRT, FLRN, FLTR, EFR, SRLN, and more

Are You Ready for Higher Interest Rates?

What Is a Derivative and How Do They Work Exactly?

The Hidden Dangers of Adjustable Rate Mortgages

7 Steps That Protect You From Rising Interest Rates

How Do Bonds Affect Mortgage Interest Rates?

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