PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY–11TH NCERT

The temperature of air at every place is influenced by :

o The latitude of the place
o The altitude of the place
o Distance from the sea
o The air- mass circulation
o The presence of warm and cold ocean currents
 LATITUDE
 The temperature of a place is determined by the insolation received.
 The insolation differs according to the latitude, therefore, the temperature also differs
consequently.

 ALTITUDE

 The atmosphere is indirectly heated by terrestrial radiation.

 Therefore, the places adjacent to the sea-level record higher temperatures than the
places located at higher elevations.
 The temperature usually decreases with increasing height.
 The rate of decrease of temperature with height is called as the normal lapse rate.

Distance from the sea

 The main factor that influences the temperature is the position of a place with respect to
the sea.
 The sea gets heated slowly and loses heat slowly compared to land.
 Land heats up and cools down rapidly.
 So, the difference in temperature over the sea is less compared to terrestrial surface.
 The places located near the sea come under the moderating influence of the sea and
land breezes which regulate the temperature.

Air-mass and Ocean currents

 The passage of air masses also affects the temperature like the land and sea breezes.
 The places which come under the effect of warm air-masses experience higher
temperature and the places that come under the influence of cold air- masses
experience lower temperature.
 Likewise, the places situated on the coast where the warm ocean currents flow record
higher temperature than the places situated on the coast where the cold currents flow.

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 The atmosphere is comprised of several gases, dust particles, and water vapour.
 The presence of oxygen becomes insignificant at the height of 120 km from the surface
of the earth with respect to the composition of the atmosphere.
 Water vapour and Carbon dioxide occur only up to 90 km.

Ozone gas
 Present around 10-50 km above earth surface and acts as a sieve, absorbing UV
(ultraviolet rays) from the sun.
 Ozone averts the harmful rays from reaching the surface of the earth.

Water vapour
 Water vapour is a variable gas, declines with altitude.
 It also drops towards the poles from the equator.
 It acts like blanket letting the earth to neither to become too hot nor too cold.
 It also contributes to the stability and instability in the air.

 Dust particles are in higher concentration in temperate and subtropical regions due to
dry winds in contrast to the Polar Regions and equatorial regions.
 They act as hygroscopic nuclei over which water vapour of atmosphere condenses to
create clouds

 The atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen.

 Nitrogen cannot be used directly from the air.
 Biotic things need nitrogen to make proteins.
 The Nitrogen Cycle is the way of supplying required nitrogen for living thing

 The atmosphere is composed of 21% oxygen.

 It is used by all living things and is essential for respiration.
 It is obligatory for burnin

 The atmosphere is composed of 0.9% argon.

 They are mainly used in light bulb

 The atmosphere is composed of 0.03% carbon dioxide.

 Plants use it to make oxygen.
 It is significant as it is opaque to outgoing terrestrial radiation and transparent to
incoming solar radiation.
 It is also blameable for the greenhouse effect.

General circulation of the Atmosphere

 The pattern of the movement of the planetary winds is called general circulation of the
atmosphere.

Factors
 The pattern of planetary winds largely depends on:
o Latitudinal variation of atmospheric heating
o Emergence of pressure belts
o The migration of belts following apparent path of the sun
o The distribution of continents and oceans
o The rotation of the earth

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 The general circulation of the atmosphere also sets in motion the marine water
circulation which affects the climate of the Earth.
 The air at the ITCZ (Inter Tropical Convergence Zone) upsurges because of convection
caused by high insolation and a low pressure is generated.
 The winds from the tropics join at this low pressure zone.
 The joined air upsurges along with the convective cell.
 It reaches the top of the troposphere up to an altitude of 14 km.
 It further moves towards the poles. This causes accumulation of air at about 30o North
and South.
 Another reason for sinking is the cooling of air when it reaches 30 degree North and
South latitudes.
 Downward near the land surface, the air flows towards the equator as the easterlies.
 The easterlies from either side of the equator converge in the Inter-Tropical Convergence
Zone (ITCZ).
 Such circulations from the surface up and vice-versa are called cells.
 This type of a cell in the tropics is called Hadley Cell.
 In the mid-latitudes the circulation is that of dipping cold air that comes from the poles
and the mounting warm air that blows from the subtropical high.
 At the surface these winds are called westerlies and the cell is known as the Ferrel cell.
 At polar latitudes the cold dense air subsides near the poles and blows towards middle
latitudes as the polar easterlies. This cell is called the polar cell.
 These Ferrel cell, Hadley Cell, and polar cell set the configuration for the general
circulation of the atmosphere.

General Atmospheric Circulation and its Effects on Oceans

 The general circulation of the atmosphere also influences the oceans.
 Warming and cooling of the Pacific Ocean is most significant in terms of general
atmospheric circulation.
 The warm water of the central Pacific Ocean gradually drifts towards South American
coast and substitutes the cool Peruvian current.
 Such presence of warm water off the coast of Peru is known as the El Nino.
 The El Nino is associated with the pressure variations in the Australia and Central
Pacific.
 This variation in pressure condition over Pacific is known as the southern oscillation.
 The combined phenomenon of El Nino and southern oscillation is known as ENSO.

Heating and Cooling of atmosphere

 There are various ways of heating and cooling of the atmosphere.
 The earth after being warmed by insolation transfers the heat to the atmospheric layers
in long wave

 CONDUCTION

 The air in interaction with the land gets heated gradually and the upper layers in touch
with the lower layers also get heated. This process is called conduction.
 This process takes place when two bodies of uneven temperature are in contact with one
another, there is a flow of energy from the warmer to the cooler body.
 The heat transfer continues until both the bodies reach the same temperature or the
contact is interrupted.

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 This process is significant in heating the lower layers of the atmosphere.

Convection
 The air in contact with the earth upsurges vertically on heating in the form of currents
and transfers the heat of the atmosphere.
 This vertical heating of the atmosphere is known as convection.
 The convective transfer of energy is limited only to the troposphere.

Advection
 The transfer of heat through horizontal movement of air is called advection.
 Horizontal movement of the air is comparatively more significant than the vertical
movement.
 Most of the diurnal variation in weather is caused by advection only in the middle
latitudes.
 During summer in tropical regions predominantly in Northern India, local winds called
‘loo’ is the result of advection process.

Troposphere
 It is considered as the lowest layer of Earth’s atmosphere.
 The troposphere starts at surface of the earth and goes up to a height of 7 to 20 km.
 All weather occurs within this layer.
 This layer has water vapour and mature particles.
 Temperature decreases at the rate of 1 degree Celsius for every 165 m of height.
 Tropopause separates Troposphere and Stratosphere.

Stratosphere
 It is the second layer of the atmosphere found above the troposphere.
 It extends up to 50 km of height.
 This layer is very dry as it contains little water vapour.
 This layer provides some advantages for flight because it is above stormy weather and
has steady, strong, horizontal winds.
 The ozone layer is found in this layer.
 The ozone layer absorbs UV rays and safeguards earth from harmful radiation.
 Stratopause separates Stratosphere and Mesosphere.

Mesosphere
 The Mesosphere is found above the stratosphere.
 It is the coldest of the atmospheric layers.
 The mesosphere starts at 50 km above the surface of Earth and goes up to 85 km.
 The temperature drops with altitude in this layer.
 By 80 km it reaches -100 degrees Celsius.
 Meteors burn up in this layer.
 The upper limit is called Mesopause which separate Mesosphere and Thermosphere.

Thermosphere
 This layer is found above Mesopause from 80 to 400 km.
 Radio waves which are transmitted from the earth are reflected back by this layer.
 The temperature increases with height.
 Aurora and satellites occur in this layer.

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Ionosphere
 The lower Thermosphere is called the Ionosphere.
 Ionosphere consists of electrically charged particles known as ions.
 This layer is defined as the layer of the atmosphere of Earth that is ionized by cosmic
and solar radiation.
 It is positioned between 80 and 400 km above the Mesopause.

Exosphere
 It is the outermost layer of the atmosphere.
 The zone where molecules and atoms escape into space is mentioned as the exosphere.
 It extends from the top of the thermosphere up to 10,000 km.

Pressure Gradient
 The rate of change of pressure in regard to distance is the pressure gradient.

Pressure belts
 There is a pattern of alternate high and low-pressure belts over the earth.
 There are seven pressure belts.
 Except the Equatorial low, there are two Sub-Tropical highs (in North and South), the
two Sub-polar lows (in North and South), and the two Polar highs (in North and South).
 The above-given pressure belts oscillate with the movement of the sun.
 In the northern hemisphere, they move southwards in winter, and in summers they
move northwards.
 The Equatorial region gets abundant heat and warm air being light, the air at the
Equator rises, generating a low pressure.
 Equatorial low
o It is found near the equator.
o The sea level pressure is low.
 Subtropical high
o The region in 30 degrees North and 30 degrees South, which are high-pressure
areas.
 Sub-polar Lows
o The region in 60 degrees North and 60 degrees South, which are low pressure belts.
 Polar Highs
o These occur near poles which have high pressure.

 Tropical cyclones are regarded as one of the most devastating natural calamities in the
world.
 They originate and intensify over warm tropical oceans.
 These are ferocious storms that originate over oceans in tropical areas and move over to
the coastal areas causing violent winds, very heavy rainfall, and storm outpourings.

Names of cyclone in different regions

 They are known as:
o Cyclones in the Indian Ocean
o Hurricanes in the Atlantic
o Typhoons in the Western Pacific and the South China Sea
o Willy-willies in Western Australia

Conditions for the formation of Tropical Cyclone

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 The conditions favourable for the formation and intensification of tropical cyclone
storms are:
o Large sea surface with temperature higher than 27° C
o Presence of the Coriolis force
o Small differences in the vertical wind speed
o A pre-existing weak- low-pressure area or low-level-cyclonic circulation
o Upper divergence above the sea level system

Formation of Cyclone
 The energy that strengthens the storm comes from the condensation process in the
towering cumulonimbus clouds, surrounding the centre of the storm.
 With uninterrupted supply of moisture from the sea, the storm is again strengthened.
 On reaching the terrestrial region the moisture supply is cut off and the storm
dissipates.
 The place where a tropical cyclone cuts the coast is called the landfall of the cyclone.
 A landfall is frequently accompanied by sturdy winds, heavy rain and mounting sea
waves that could threaten people and cause damage to properties.
 Cyclones which cross 20 degrees North latitude are more destructive.
 They cover a larger area and can originate over the land and sea whereas the tropical
cyclones originate only over the seas and on reaching the land they dissipate.

Eye of Cyclone
 A mature tropical cyclone is characterised by the strong spirally circulating wind around
the centre which is called the eye.
 The eye is an area with calm weather descending air.
 It is characterized by light winds and clear skies.

Eye Wall
 Around the eye is the eye wall, where there is a strong spiraling rise of air to greater
height reaching the tropopause.
 The wind reaches maximum velocity in this region and torrential rain occurs here.
 From the eye wall, rain bands may radiate and trains of cumulus and cumulonimbus
clouds may drift into the outer region.

Extra Tropical Cyclones

 The Extra Tropical Cyclones are storm systems emerging in the mid and high latitudes,
away from the tropics.
 They are low-pressure systems with associated cold fronts, warm fronts, and occluded
fronts.
 These cyclones are formed along the polar front.
 These cyclones move from west to east but tropical cyclones, move from east to west.
 In the beginning, the front is stationary.
 Extra-tropical cyclones are also known as mid-latitude storms or baroclinic storms.
 In the Northern hemisphere, cold air blows from the north of the front and warm air
blows from the south.
 When the pressure descents along the front, the cold air move towards south and the
warm air moves northwards setting in motion an anticlockwise cyclonic circulation.
 The cyclonic circulation result in a well-built extra tropical cyclone, with a cold front and
a warm front.

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 There are pockets of warm air compressed between the forward and the rear cold air.
 The warm air climbs over the cold air and a series of clouds appear over the sky ahead
of the warm front and cause rainfall.
 The cold front approaches the warm air from behind and pushes the warm air up.
 As an outcome, cumulus clouds develop along the cold front.
 The cold front moves faster than the warm front eventually surpassing the warm front.
 The warm air is entirely lifted up and the front is occluded and the cyclone dissipates.
 They can originate over the land and sea and cover a larger area.
 This cyclone affects a much larger area as compared to the tropical cyclone.
 The velocity of wind in a tropical cyclone is much higher and it is more damaging.
Forces Affecting the Velocity and Direction of Wind
 The air in motion is called wind.
 The wind blows from high pressure to low pressure.
 The wind at the surface experiences friction.
 The rotation of the earth also affects the wind movement.
 The force exerted by the rotation of the earth is known as the Coriolis force.
 Therefore, the horizontal winds near the Earth’s surface respond to the combined effect
of three forces:
o The Pressure Gradient Force
o The Frictional Force
o The Coriolis Force

Pressure Gradient Force

 The differences in atmospheric pressure generate a force.
 The rate of change of pressure with regard to distance is known as the pressure
gradient.
 The pressure gradient is weak where the isobars are distant and strong where the
isobars are close by to each other.

Frictional Force
 It impacts the speed of the wind.
 The friction is maximum at surface and minimal over the sea surface.
 The influence of frictional force usually stretches up to an elevation of 1 – 3 km.

Coriolis force
 The rotation of the earth about its axis affects the direction of the wind and this force is
called the Coriolis force.
 It is directly proportional to the angle of latitude.
 It deflects the wind to the left direction in the southern hemisphere and the right
direction in the northern hemisphere.
 The deflection is more when the wind velocity is high.
 It is maximum at the poles and is absent at the equator.
 The force acts perpendicular to the pressure gradient force.
 The pressure gradient force is perpendicular to an isobar.
 The higher the pressure gradient force, the more is the speed of the wind and the larger
is the deflection in the direction of wind happens.
 As a result of these two forces functioning perpendicular to each other, in the low-
pressure areas the wind blows around it.

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 The Coriolis force is zero at the equator and the wind blows perpendicular to the
isobars.

Seasonal Wind The pattern of wind circulation is modified in different seasons due to the
shifting of regions of maximum heating, pressure and wind belts. The most pronounced
effect of such a shift is noticed in the monsoons, especially over southeast Asia.

). The other local deviations from the general circulation system are as follows. Local Winds
Differences in the heating and cooling of earth surfaces and the cycles those develop daily
or annually can create several common, local or regional wind

Land and Sea Breezes As explained earlier, the land and sea absorb and transfer heat
differently. During the day the land heats up faster and becomes warmer than the sea.
Therefore, over the land the air rises giving rise to a low pressure area, whereas the sea is
relatively cool and the pressure over sea is relatively high.

Thus, pressure gradient from sea to land is created and the wind blows from the sea to the
land as the sea breeze. In the night the reversal of condition takes place. The land loses
heat faster and is cooler than the sea. The pressure gradient is from the land to the sea and
hence land breeze results.

Mountain and Valley Winds In mountainous regions, during the day the slopes get heated
up and air moves upslope and to fill the resulting gap the air from the valley blows up the
valley. This wind is known as the valley breeze. During the night the slopes get cooled and
the dense air descends into the valley as the mountain wind.

The cool air, of the high plateaus and ice fields draining into the valley is called katabatic
wind. Another type of warm wind occurs on the leeward side of the mountain ranges. The
moisture in these winds, while crossing the mountain ranges condense and precipitate.
When it descends down the leeward side of the slope the dry air gets warmed up by
adiabatic process. This dry air may melt the snow in a short time.

Air Masses When the air remains over a homogenous area for a sufficiently longer time, it
acquires the characteristics of the area. The homogenous regions can be the vast ocean
surface or vast plains. The air with distinctive characteristics in terms of temperature and
humidity is called an airmass. It is defined as a large body of air having little horizontal
variation in temperature and moisture. The homogenous surfaces, over which air masses
form, are called the source regions. The air masses are classified according to the source
regions.

There are five major source regions. These are: (i) Warm tropical and subtropical oceans; (ii)
The subtropical hot deserts; (iii) The relatively cold high latitude oceans; (iv) The very cold
snow covered continents in high latitudes; (v) Permanently ice covered continents in the
Arctic and Antarctica. Accordingly, following types of airmasses are recognised: (i) Maritime
tropical (mT); (ii) Continental tropical (cT); (iii) Maritime polar (mP); (iv) Continental polar

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(cP); (v) Continental arctic (cA). Tropical air masses are warm and polar air masses are cold.
Fronts When two different air masses meet, the boundary zone between them is called a
front. The process of formation of the fronts is known as frontogenesis. There are four types
of fronts: (a) Cold; (b) Warm; (c) Stationary; (d) Occluded.

When the front remains stationary, it is called a stationary front. When the cold air moves
towards the warm air mass, its contact zone is called the cold front, whereas if the warm air
mass moves towards the cold air mass, the contact zone is a warm front.

If an air mass is fully lifted above the land surface, it is called the occluded front. The fronts
occur in middle latitudes and are characterised by steep gradient in temperature and
pressure. They bring abrupt changes in temperature and cause the air to rise to form
clouds and cause precipitation

Koeppen's Group A Clim

atesKoeppen’s Group-A climates are found latitudes, typically within 15° North and
South.in the unbroken belt around the Earth at low
 Group A climates are regulated largely by the seasonal variations of the trade winds,
the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), and the Asian monsoon.

Group A: Tropical Humid Climates

 Tropical humid climates exist between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn.
 Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone makes the climate hot and humid.
 The annual range of temperature in this region is very low whereas the annual rainfall is
high.
 The tropical group is divided into three types. They are:
o Af – Tropical wet climate
o Am – Tropical monsoon climate
o Aw – Tropical wet and dry climate

Tropical Wet Climate (Af)

 Tropical wet climate is seen near the equator.
 The chief areas that lie in this climate are:
o Amazon Basin in South America
o Western Equatorial Africa
o The islands of East Indies
 A substantial amount of rainfall occurs in every month of the year.
 These regions receive thundershowers in the afternoon.
 The temperature is uniformly high.
 The annual range of temperature is negligible.
 The maximum temperature during daytime is about 30°C whereas the minimum
temperature is about 20°C.
 The region is bestowed with Tropical evergreen forests and large biodiversity.

Tropical Monsoon Climate (Am)

 Tropical monsoon climate (Am) is found over:
o The Indian sub-continent
o North Eastern part of South America

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 o Northern Australia.
 These regions receive heavy rainfall in summer.
 Winter in this area seems to be dry.

Tropical Wet and Dry Climate (Aw)

 Tropical wet and dry climate is found in north and south of Tropical Wet Climate (Af)
type climate regions.
 It borders with Cf or Cw on the eastern part and dry climate on the western part of the
continent.
 Extensive Aw climate is found in
o Sudan
o South of Central Africa
o North and South of the Amazon forest in Brazil
o Connecting parts of Bolivia and Paraguay in South America
 The annual rainfall in Tropical Wet and Dry Climate is significantly less than that in Af
and Am climate types.
 The wet season is shorter in this region.
 The dry season is longer with the drought being more severe.
 The diurnal ranges of temperature are extreme in the dry season.
 Temperature is high throughout the year.
 Deciduous forest and tree-shredded grasslands main flora found in this region.

Koeppen's Group-B Climates

 The Group-B Climates of Koppen’s Climate Classification are Dry Climates

 These arid and semiarid climates cover about a quarter of the land surface of the Earth.
 This region lies between 50° North and 50° South.
 But these regions are predominantly seen in the 15–30° latitude belts in northern and
southern hemispheres.
 These regions have intense solar radiation and clear skies.
 These regions experience
o Low precipitation
o Great variability in precipitation from year to year
o Low relative humidity
o High evaporation rates
 Dry climates are divided into:
o Steppe or semi-arid climate (BS)
o Subtropical steppe (BSh)- Latitudes from 15° – 35°
o Mid-latitude steppe (BSk)
o Desert climate (BW)
o Subtropical desert (BWh) – Latitudes between 35°- 60°
o Mid-latitude desert (BWk)

Subtropical Steppe (BSh) and Subtropical Desert (BWh) Climates

 Subtropical steppe (BSh) and subtropical desert (BWh) have common temperature and
precipitation characteristics.
 The maximum temperature in this region in summer is very high.
 The annual and diurnal ranges of temperature are also high.

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 The highest temperature of 58°C was recorded at Libya in 1922 at Al Aziziyah.
 This region is positioned in the transition zone between dry climates and humid.
 Subtropical steppe region receives slightly more rainfall than the subtropical desert
which is sufficient enough for the growth of meager grasslands.
 The rainfall in both the climates is highly variable.
 Rain occurs in short intense thundershowers in deserts and is futile in building soil
moisture.
 The inconsistency in the rainfall distresses the life in the steppe much more than in the
desert, more frequently causing famine.
 Fog is common in coastal deserts neighboring cold currents.

Koeppen's Group C Climates--Warm Temperate (Mid-Latitude) Climates

 Warm temperate (mid-latitude) climates stretch from 30° – 50° of latitude mainly on the
western and eastern margins of continents.
 These climates usually have warm summers with mild winters.
 They are classified into four types:
1. Humid subtropical – Cwa
2. Mediterranean Climate – Cs
3. Humid subtropical climate – Cfa
4. Marine west coast climate – Cfb

Humid Subtropical Climate (Cwa)

 The Humid subtropical climate is found in the poleward of Tropic of Cancer and
Capricorn.
 This climate is predominantly found in the North Indian plains and interior plains of
South China.
 The Humid Subtropical Climate is similar to Tropical Wet and Dry Climate (Aw) climate
excluding that the temperature in winter is warm.

Mediterranean Climate (Cs)

 Mediterranean climate is found around Mediterranean sea, along the west coast of
continents in subtropical latitudes between 30° – 40° latitudes
 The climate is predominantly found in the
o Central Chile
o Central California
o Along the coast in South Eastern
o South Western Australia
 These areas come under the influence of westerly wind in winter and sub-tropical high
in summer.
 Therefore, the climate is characterized by hot, dry summer and mild, rainy winter.
 The monthly average temperature in winter below 10°C and in summer is around 25° C.
 The annual precipitation ranges from 35 – 90 cm.

Humid Subtropical Climate (Cfa)

 The Humid subtropical climate is found in the Eastern parts of the continent lying in
the subtropical latitudes.
 In this area, the air masses are usually uneven and cause rainfall throughout the year.
 This Climate is found in:

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 o The Eastern United States of America
o Southern and eastern China
o Southern Japan
o North-eastern Argentina
o Coastal South Africa
o Eastern coast of Australia
 The annual average of precipitation stretches from 75-150 cm.
 Frontal precipitation in winter and thunderstorms in summer are usual.
 The average monthly temperature in winter it differs from 5°-12° C and in summer is
about 27°C.

Marine West Coast Climate (Cfb)

 Marine west coast climate is situated poleward from the Mediterranean climate on the
west coast of the continents.
 The main areas are:
o North-western Europe
o West coast of North America
o North of California
o Southern Chile
o South-eastern Australia
o New Zealand
 The temperature is moderate and in winter, it is warmer than for its latitude due to
marine influence.
 The mean temperature in winter 4°-10°C and in summer months ranges from 15°-20°C.

Koeppen's Group D Climates

In a major portion of the middle and high latitudes lie a group of climates classified within
the Koeppen scheme as C and D.
 The average temperature is above 10 °C in their warmest months.
 The average temperature in the coldest month is below −3 °C.
 This climatic condition is generally found in the interiors of continents and on their
upper east coasts, typically north of 40°N.
 Group D climates are very rare in the Southern Hemisphere, due to the smaller land
masses in the middle latitudes and the almost complete absence of land at 40–60°
south.
 It exists only in some highland locations.

Cold Snow Forest Climates (D)

 Cold snow forest climate is found in the large continental area in the northern
hemisphere between 40°-70° North latitudes.
 The regions lying in this climate are:
o Europe
o Asia
o North America
 Cold snow forest climates are divided into two types:
o Df- cold climate with humid winter.
o Dw- cold climate with dry winter.
 The severity of winter is more pronounced in higher latitudes.

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Cold Climate with Humid Winters (Df)
 Cold climate with humid winters is found in the poleward of mid-latitude steppe and
marine west coast climate.
 The winters are snowy and cold.
 The frost free season is short.
 The annual ranges of temperature are high.
 The weather changes are unexpected and short.
 Poleward, the winters are extreme.

Cold Climate with Dry Winters (Dw)

 Cold climate with dry winter mainly found over North-Eastern Asia.
 Precipitation occurs in summer.
 The annual precipitation is low from 12-15 cm.
 The progress of pronounced winter anticyclone and its weakening in summer sets in
monsoon-like reversal of the wind in this area.
 Poleward summer temperatures are poorer and winter temperatures are very low with
several locations experiencing below freezing point temperatures.

Group E climates
 Group E climates are regulated by the polar and arctic air masses of high latitudes
which lie above 60° North and South latitudes.

Polar Climates (E)

 Polar climates are found in the poleward beyond 70° latitude.
 Polar climates consist of two types:
o Tundra (ET)
o Ice Cap (EF)

Tundra Climate (ET)

 The tundra climate (ET) is so called after the types of vegetation, such as lichens, low-
growing mosses, and flowering plants.
 The regions experiencing this climate are:
o Mount Rainier
o Macquarie Island
o Crozet Islands
o Campbell Island
o Kerguelen Islands
o Prince Edward Islands
 This is the region of permafrost.
 The subsoil in this region is permanently frozen.
 The water logging and short growing season support only low growing plants.
 The tundra regions have a very long period of daylight during summer.

Ice Cap Climate (EF)

 The ice cap climate (EF) found in the interior Greenland and Antarctica.
 The regions experiencing this climate are:
o Vostok Station, Antarctica
o Mount Ararat, in Turkey

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 o Mount Everest
o Scott Base, Antarctica
o Summit Camp, Greenland
o Plateau Station, Antarctica
 The temperature is below freezing point even in summer.
 This region receives very little precipitation.
 The ice and snow get amassed and the increasing pressure causes the deformation of
the ice sheets and they break.
 These broken pieces move as icebergs and float in the Antarctic and Arctic waters.

Group H climates

Highland Climates (H)

 Group H climate contains all highland areas not easily categorized by other climate
types.
 Highland climates are dominated by topography.
 In high mountains, large changes in average temperature occur over short distances.
 Precipitation types and intensity of the precipitation also differ spatially across
highlands.
 There is vertical zonation of layering of climatic types with elevation in the mountain
environment.

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