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Procedia Engineering 161 (2016) 445 – 450

World Multidisciplinary Civil Engineering-Architecture-Urban Planning Symposium 2016,

WMCAUS 2016

Heavy Machinery Required for the Proper Application of

Geosynthetic Products in the Implementation of Transport
Constructions
Ondrej Stopkaa,*, Daniel Kuþerkab, Rudolf Kampfa, Ján Ližbetina , Ladislav Bartuškaa,
Ján Kmecb, Miroslav Gombárb, Viktorie Weissb
a
VŠTE-Institute of Technology and Business in ýeské BudČjovice, Faculty Technology, Department of Transport and Logistics,
Okružní 517/10, 370 01 ýeské BudČjovice, Czech Republic
b
VŠTE-Institute of Technology and Business in ýeské BudČjovice, Faculty Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Okružní 517/10,
Okružní 517/10, 370 01 ýeské BudČjovice, Czech Republic

Abstract

The application of geosynthetic materials has become an ordinary part of not only transport constructions. Such materials are very
versatile depending on the earth construction requirements and soil character. With regard to their popularity in use, research and
development of new material and innovations of the existing ones are under way, so that the demands on their usability were met
and their long life was ensured. According to their production methods, geosynthetics may be classified into basic groups of woven,
non-woven and knitted materials. According to their function, which is expected from the different types of geosynthetics, we
distinguish geosynthetics with a filtration, separation, protection barrier, erosion control, drainage and reinforcement functions.
However, the application of the geosynthetic materials is not possible without a conveniently prepared subgrade. The use of heavy
machinery thus becomes an important step in the implementation of transport constructions. Without quality preparation of the
surface and subgrade of the body, the effectiveness of the geosynthetics would be supressed and their life would be much shorter.
This could lead to deformations and cause fatal consequences to the overall transport structure. A set of earth works, depending on
the type of transport structure, precedes the laying of the geosynthetic material. In general, heavy machinery is used to handle earth
in extraction or filling, removal of unsuitable sharp-edged stones and other undesirable objects, to even the surface and to compact
it. The article deals with the building machines vital for the preparation of the earth body before the application of geosynthetics.
At the same time, it mentions the basic types of geosynthetic materials used in transport constructions.
©©2016
2016The
The Authors.
Authors. Published
Published by Elsevier
by Elsevier Ltd.is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
Ltd. This
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of WMCAUS 2016
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of WMCAUS 2016
Keywords: heavy machinery; geosynthetic material; transport constructions; compaction;

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +420-387-842-188.

E-mail address: stopka@mail.vstecb.cz

1877-7058 © 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of WMCAUS 2016
doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2016.08.588
446 Ondrej Stopka et al. / Procedia Engineering 161 (2016) 445 – 450

1. Introduction

The reinforcements of earth constructions are ordinary measures taken during the implementation of transport
constructions. The measures are taken under the use of geosynthetic materials. The actual implementation of linear
structures must be preceded by an extensive survey of the area. This is stated in the publications [1], [2], [3] and in
[4] [5]. Their fundamental task is to protect and stabilise the constructions as well as to improve the transport
constructions themselves. Geosynthetic materials make indispensable parts of transport constructions, but also of
many other constructions. A lot of research and development is directed into the field and they develop fast.
The most applied material is the so-called thermoplastic polymer. Among the materials used for the production of
geosynthetics, there is polyamide, aramid, and polyester.
Thanks to the use of geosynthetic materials, the subgrade is separated from the bank and they are both reinforced.
If the slope of the embankment is steep, it is reinforced too. The geosynthetics are also used to reinforce the
construction layers of the road pavement, and they are applied into the railway substructures.
Geosynthetic products may be divided into water permeable and impermeable. The application of geosynthetics
is conditioned by the use of heavy machinery which is used for forming the made-up grounds, removal, transport,
levelling and compaction of the surface. By means of heavy machinery, suitable conditions are prepared for the
application of geosynthetics. This issue was also discussed in [24], [25], [26] and in [27]. The publication is based on
previous studies, such as [11], [13], [14], [15]. A number of factors influence the selection of machinery for the
implementation of transport constructions and they are described in the sections below.

2. Classification of geosynthetic products

Geotextiles may be classified among the most widespread geosynthetic products. We distinguish woven, non-
woven and knitted geotextiles. They have the following functions: filtration, separation, protection barrier, erosion
control, drainage and reinforcement. The woven geotextiles are of a high tensile strength, which means that their
application is preferred mainly in places of tensile stress. On the other hand, the non-woven geotextiles manifest a
rather low tensile strength. The third type are knitted geotextiles that have a high strength and good permeability.
As for the functions, the purpose of the filtration function is to enable the water flows and to prevent the movement
of particles of certain sizes. It holds that the filter must have a higher permeability than the surrounding soil in order
to prevent various deformations. The permeability of geotextiles is decided according to the grain-size distribution of
the soil. The separation function is supposed to separate two different materials and prevent them from mixing, which
would lead to the weakening of the formation.
The function of the protection barrier protects the construction from mechanical damage and erosion. This
concerns especially steep slopes to prevent loose parts from falling off, from damage and prevent the formation of
dust. The erosion control function protects the construction surface from erosion due to the external effects, such as
rain, wind and solar radiation. The drainage function leads water away from the surroundings. The function of
reinforcement is met when the geotextile has a sufficient tensile strength. This function is vital in places with excessive
occurrences of subsoil deformations.
Another much used type of geosynthetic materials are geocells. The size or height of the geocell ranges from 10
to 25 cm. The surface of the cell may be smooth or profiled. Fast installation belongs among the major advantages of
geocells. Moreover, geocells may be used repeatedly. Geocells are joined into belts and are spread directly on the
building site. They are used to improve the bearing capacity of the road and railway formations, but also in erosion
control.
Geogrids are products used in earth works. They are of a grid structure with nods and apertures exceeding 10 mm.
They are characterised by a high tensile strength as well as low deformation. In geogrids we distinguish woven (soft),
joined and stretched (stiff) geogrids. Soft geogrids are woven geotextiles. The joined geogrids are made from crossover
belts. There are single-axis, double-axis and triple axis geogrids. In the first place, the properties are influenced by the
used material. The properties of geogrids are assessed in terms of life-span, mechanical and hydraulic properties.
There are also special types of geosynthetics that incorporate more products, for example geonets. These are
geosynthetic products that combine several products laid in more layers and they have diverse functions. This way, it
is possible to exploit more positive properties of the different geosynthetics at the same time. Next, there are
geospacers. We may distinguish open 3-D structure and combined geosynthetic products. They are used as erosion
control in slopes. Next, we recognize single-sided smooth 3-D structures that are also suitable as erosion control, but
 Ondrej Stopka et al. / Procedia Engineering 161 (2016) 445 – 450 447

they are applied below the ground water level. The third type is reinforced geospacers used to protect steeper slopes
and planting greenery. The last are geospacers filled with bitumen, which are used for the slopes of water reservoirs
and banks.
Depending on the combination of materials, the combined geosynthetics fulfil some of the following functions.
They ensure separation, filtration, reinforcement, protection barrier, sealing and drainage. The function of
separation is one of the most required functions in civil engineering. It prevents the different material layers from
mixing and from altering their primary function. The properties of the geosynthetics cannot be reduced even at
dynamic or static loads. The material must be impermeable, must have stable apertures as for shape and size, and must
have high mechanical strength and abrasion-resistance.
Another required function is filtration capacity. The filtration function ensures the retention of certain soil
particles. This way, the properties of the soil are not degraded and water flow is ensured. The material must have
filtration stability, good permeability, certain minimum strength in transport and their subsequent incorporation, and
be able to prevent its colmatage.
Reinforcement is another important function as it carries the shear and tensile forces. The material must have a
high abrasion-resistance, high tensile strength, and a good friction coefficient between the geosynthetics and soil.
Another function that is similarly important is of a protection barrier, as it protects the construction elements and
substances before damage. They are used in places requiring sensitive insulation and drainage geosynthetics.
Erosion control protects the constructions against the effects manifested on the surface, such as wind, water and
sun. The sealing function is given by the choice of sealing geosynthetics. They prevent water flows and may even
prevent gas leaks. The function of drainage capacity is important to drain excess water so that the material could
remain stable in the shape.
The application or laying down the geosynthetic material has its rules. First, the building site needs to be prepared,
grass cover and humus layer removed, before any geosynthetics may be applied. As for the filtration geotextiles, they
are laid on the surface that has been partially levelled. In case of reinforced geotextiles, the surface must be perfectly
levelled, compacted and the environment must be drained. The subgrade must be carefully prepared, i.e. branches and
sharp-edged stones must be removed, in order to ensure the long life of the materials.
Machinery must be used to prepare the subgrade to level and compact the ground to a prescribed degree of
compaction in line with Proctor Compaction Test - see Section 3. The construction layer is placed on the laid and
anchored geotextile meeting specific parameters as for grain size and character, but also mechanical properties.
As mentioned above, in order to install geosynthetic products and prepare the subgrade, heavy machinery needs
to be involved in the implementation of transport constructions. Among the machinery, there are loaders, trucks,
dozers, graders, manual compactors, rollers, plate compactors, etc. Other publications in the implementation of
earthworks not only linear, but also other buildings are [21] [22] [23].

3. Importance of heavy machinery in applying geosynthetic products

3.1. Dumpers, trucks, dozers and graders

The use of geosynthetic products in implementing transport constructions cannot do without heavy machinery
required for filling and removing soil, minor ground modifications, compaction, levelling and layer overlapping, etc.
Important are especially loaders, trucks, dozers, graders, manual compactors and rollers.
Dumpers are characterized as mobile building machines to load and transport soils at short distances. They vary
in size and they may weigh as much as 200 tons. The loader’s shovel is characteristic for its width. The shovel may
differ depending on the type of material to be loaded. During earth works the most common material is gravel or sandy
and clayey loam in various proportions for which a standard shovel is used. The shovel may also be equipped with a
hydraulic control in the front, which facilitates the scooping.
At large stones and boulders, the shovel may be replaced by a pitchfork that facilitates the scooping and handling
of extensive and heavy pieces. There is a high variability to the use of a loader, for example to clean roads if a sweeping
device is mounted. Loaders comprise of a shovel, lift arm, articulated frame, engine and driver’s cabin. When unloaded
they travel at the speed of 40 km/h. Otherwise, they travel at 10-15 km/h. The output of large loaders may reach 590
kW. The operating weight may reach 90 tons. The loader may not only load soil, but it may also loosen it.
Trucks are other vital machines in transport constructions. These are the most universal heavy machinery applied
in all industrial branches to transport voluminous and heavy loads. They are used in the building industry, agriculture,
448 Ondrej Stopka et al. / Procedia Engineering 161 (2016) 445 – 450

forestry, mining, etc. Besides soils and stones, they may be used to carry other heavy machinery to the building sites.
Common loads exceed 1.5 tons. The maximum loading capacity of a truck depends on the particular type.
A dozer is another important machine to distribute soil. The working tool of a dozer is the ploughshare. The
different types of dozers are mostly crawlers. Based on the orientation and ploughshare movement we distinguish
bulldozers, angledozers and tiltdozers. Bulldozers are characteristic of a ploughshare perpendicular to the direction of
travel. The ploughshare may move only up and down. Bulldozers are mainly used to level the coarse unevenness of
the ground. Angledozers may lift the ploughshare and move it within a certain angle. This is practical especially in
backfilling excavations. Titldozers may even tilt the ploughshare, which is used in making grooves or removal of
boulders.
Next, graders are used in building. These are building machines designed for levelling large areas. The working
tool of a grader is the ploughshare placed on the front or rare axles. The ploughshare is smaller than that of a dozer, it
spins 360° and moves sideways. Graders divide into semi-trailers, trailers and self-propelled machines. According to
the ploughshare size, we distinguish light, medium and heavy ploughshares, and based on the control, there are
mechanical and hydraulic ones. Graders are used in types of the civil engineering. The publication also follows on
from previous research within the teaching materials in [7], [8], [9], [12] and others.

3.2. Compacting mechanisms

Compaction of the subgrade is a separate step in earthworks. Compaction increases the density of the material,
improves its bearing capacity, reduces settlement and improves the stability. It may be said that via compaction, the
material transported onto the subgrade gets into the state before extraction. This way, the mechanical properties of the
soil are improved, such as cohesion, impermeability, and bearing capacity, and the deformation and angle of internal
friction are reduced. It also mentions the authors in [18].
The compaction may be performed by dynamic, static or vibration effects. As for the roller shape we distinguish
smooth, pneumatic, and shaped rollers and plate compactors. Correctly and sufficiently compacted surface is
important for the long life of transport constructions or any construction work built on a compacted ground.
Sufficient and correct compaction based on the requirements prescribed in a project also depends on the choice of
a compacting mechanism. This depends on the character of soil, weight of the machine, work method, machine
dimensions, etc.
Among the most widespread types of static rollers are smooth drum rollers. The smooth drum has one or several
tracks, onto which the roller load is carried. Static rollers are relatively low in efficiency and they operate on a narrow
strip of the upper layer. Therefore, they are suitable for the finishing works.
Another static compaction machine is a pneumatic roller. The compaction mechanism is based on a number of
rubber tyres placed next to one another, onto which the static load of the machine is carried. The machines are able to
multiply the compaction effect by means of an increased load. This may be achieved using special slick tyres. A high
efficiency of such a roller lies in the fact that large pressure is exerted on a small contact area. This roller is used for
cohesive soils. One of the factors influencing the compaction effect is the optimal inflation of the tyres that may be
changed.
Shaped rollers are also used. As opposed to pneumatic rollers, they do not have a smooth track. It is equipped
with shaped stumps, thorns or grid on the surface. Apart from compaction, the stumps facilitate mixing of the soil,
which is used in plastic soils.
Another option is dynamic compactors. The principle of dynamic compactors is the stress of a heavy body onto
the surface of the soil under compaction. The stress forms on the contact of the soil and tool, which disrupts the soil
cohesion capacity and particles displace. The dynamics of a machine is determined according to the soil under
compaction.
Next, explosive compaction is applied, which works on the principle of a freely falling plate lifted by means of a
motor. The number of strokes is about 55. The weight of the machine is up to 200 kg, but there are also machines
weighing as much as 2500 kg. These dynamic machines jump as high as 30 to 50 cm. There are practical in limited
space.
The third type are vibration machines. Vibration induces stress on the contact of grains, displacement of the grains
and thus the voids between the grains are filled. This way, the bulk density increases. They are mainly used in
heterogeneous non-cohesive soils.
 Ondrej Stopka et al. / Procedia Engineering 161 (2016) 445 – 450 449

In general, for the different compaction mechanisms it is important to determine the thickness of the compacted
layer, soil moisture, weight of the compaction machine as well as the compaction time. Construction of linear
structures includes many other aspects of the work which are not shown in this study, but they are included in Chyba!
Nenalezen zdroj odkazĤ. [15] and in publications [19] [20]. The publication can establish research other related
topics such states [6] [10].

4. Conclusion

Transport constructions represent a specific type of constructions due to their lengths, which multi-fold exceeds
their widths. Therefore, there are different requirements to face the dynamic movements during the operation.
Moreover, transport constructions are characteristic of a very heterogeneous geomorphology.
The subgrade is prepared using heavy machinery. Unsuitable soil is removed and suitable soil is filled, levelled
and compacted. Incorporating the above mentioned steps, the surface is prepared for laying the geosynthetic materials.
Geosynthetic materials are applied to separate the subgrade from the embankment and for their reinforcement. In case
of a steep slope, it is conveniently reinforced. The construction layers of roads are also reinforced and geosynthetics
may be applied in the railway superstructures.
Different types of dozers are used as needed, for example, to distribute the soil. Bulldozers are used to even coarse
grounds. Angledozers and tiltdozers are used for their upgraded capacities to move or tilt. Graders are used on
extensive areas and their ploughshare that spins 360°.
Compaction mechanisms are a separate category of heavy machinery. Their basic division is static, dynamic and
vibration machines. As for the roller, there are smooth drum rollers, pneumatic rollers, shaped rollers and plate
compactors. Smooth rollers are especially suitable for finishing works. A pneumatic roller is used for cohesive soils.
Shaped rollers also facilitate mixing of the plastic soil. In limited space small explosive compactors are applied.
Vibration machines are used for heterogeneous non-cohesive soils.

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