Harmonic Analysis

©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Harmonics

 Types of Power Quality
Problems

©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 2

 Waveform Distortion
• Primary Types of Waveform Distortion
– DC Offset
– Harmonics
– Interharmonics
– Notching
– Noise

©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 3

 Harmonics
• One special category of power quality
problems

• “Harmonics are voltages and/or currents

present in an electrical system at some
multiple of the fundamental frequency.”
(IEEE Std 399, Brown Book)

©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 4

 Nonlinear Loads
• Sinusoidal voltage
applied to a simple
nonlinear resistor

• Increasing the
voltage by a few
percent may cause
current to double

©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 5

 Fourier Representation
• Any periodic
waveform can be
expressed as a sum
of sinusoids
• The sum of the
sinusoids is referred
to as Fourier Series
(6-pulse)
2 3 1 1 1 1
I ac I d (cos t cos3 t cos7 t cos11 t cos13 t
5 7 11 13
I h cos(h t h )
h 1

©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 6

 Harmonic Sources
• Utilities (Power Grid)
– Known as “Background Harmonic”
– Pollution from other irresponsible customers
– SVC, HVDC, FACTS, …
– Usually a voltage source
• Synchronous Generators
– Due to Pitch (can be eliminated by fractional-
pitch winding) and Saturation
– Usually a voltage source
©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 7
 Harmonic Sources (cont’d)
• Transformers
– Due to magnetizing branch saturation
– Only at lightly loaded condition
– Usually a current source
• Power Electronic Devices
– Charger, Converter, Inverter, UPS, VFD, SVC, HVDC,
FACTS, …
– Due to switching actions
– Either a voltage source or a current source

©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 8

 Harmonic Sources (cont’d)
• Other Non-Linear Loads
– Arc furnaces, discharge lighting, …
– Due to unstable and non-linear process
– Either a voltage source or a current source
• In general, any load that is applied to a
power system that requires other than a
sinusoidal current

©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 9

 Harmonic I and V

©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 10

 Classification of Harmonics

• Harmonics may be classified as:

– Characteristic Harmonics

 Generally produced by power converters

– Non-Characteristic Harmonics

 Typically produced by arc furnaces and discharge

lighting (from non-periodical waveforms)

©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 11

 Phase Angle Relationship

• Fundamental Frequency

©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 12

 Phase Angle Relationship

• Third Order

©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 13

 Phase Angle Relationship

• Fifth Order

• Seventh Order

©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 14

 Order vs. Sequence

©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 15

 Characteristic Harmonics

©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 16

 Characteristic Harmonics
(cont’d)

©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 17

 Harmonic Spectrum

©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 18

 Harmonic-Related Problems
• Motors and Generators

– Increased heating due to iron and copper losses

– Reduced efficiency and torque

– Higher audible noise

– Cogging or crawling

– Mechanical oscillations

©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 19

 Harmonic-Related Problems
(cont’d)
• Transformers
– Parasitic heating
– Increased copper, stray flux and iron losses

• Capacitors (var compensators)

– Possibility of system resonance
– Increased heating and voltage stress
– Shortened capacitor life
©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 20
 Harmonic-Related Problems
(cont’d)
• Power Cables
– Involved in system resonance
– Voltage stress and corona leading to dielectric
failure
– Heating and derating
• Neutrals of four-wire systems (480/277V; 120/208V)
– Overheating
• Fuses
– Blowing
©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 21
 Harmonic-Related Problems
(cont’d)
• Switchgears
– Increased heating and losses
– Reduced steady-state current carrying capability
– Shortened insulation components life
• Relays
– Possibility of misoperation
• Metering
– Affected readings
©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 22
 Harmonic-Related Problems
(cont’d)
• Communication Systems
– Interference by higher frequency
electromagnetic field
• Electronic Equipment (computers, PLC)
– Misoperation
• System
– Resonance (serial and parallel)
– Poor power factor

©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 23

 Parallel Resonance
• Total impedance at resonance frequency
increases
• High circulating current will flow in the
capacitance-inductance loop

©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 24

 Parallel Resonance

©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 25

 Capacitor Banks

©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 26

 Capacitor Banks

©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 27

 Capacitor Banks

Say, Seventh Harmonic Current = 5% of 1100A = 55 A

©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 28

 Capacitor Banks

Resistance = 1% including cable and transformer

CAF = X/R = 7*0.0069/0.0012 =40.25
Resonant Current = 55*40.25 = 2214 A

©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 29

 Parallel Resonance (cont’d)
Cause: Source inductance resonates with
capacitor bank at a frequency
excited by the facilities harmonic
sources
Impacts: 1. Excessive capacitor fuse
operation
2. Capacitor failures
3. Incorrect relay tripping
4. Telephone interference
5. Overheating of equipment
©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 30
 Harmonic Distortion
Measurements
• Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)
– Also known as Harmonic Distortion Factor
(HDF), is the most popular index to measure the
level of harmonic distortion to voltage and
current
– Ratio of the RMS of all harmonics to the
fundamental component
– For an ideal system THD = 0%
– Potential heating value of the harmonics relative
to the fundamental
©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 31
 Harmonic Distortion
Measurements (cont’d)
– Good indicator of additional losses due to
current flowing through a conductor
– Not a good indicator of voltage stress in a
capacitor (related to peak value of voltage
waveform, not its heating value)

Fi 2
2
THD
F1

Where Fi is the amplitude of the ith harmonic,

and F1 is that for the fundamental component.
©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 32
 Harmonic Distortion
Measurements (cont’d)
• Individual Harmonic Distortion (IHD)
- Ratio of a given harmonic to fundamental
- To track magnitude of individual harmonic
Fi
IHD
F1
• Root Mean Square (RMS) - Total
- Root Mean Square of fundamental plus all
harmonics
- Equal to fundamental RMS if Harmonics are
zero
RMS Fi 2
1

©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 33

 Reducing System
Harmonics
• Add Passive Filters
– Shunt or Single Tuned Filters
– Broadband Filters or Band Pass Filters
– Provide low impedance path for harmonic
current
– Least expensive

©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 34

 Reducing System
Harmonics (cont’d)
• Increase Pulse Numbers
– Increasing pulse number of convert circuits
– Limited by practical control problems

©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 35

 Reducing System
Harmonics (cont’d)
• Apply Transformer Phase Shifting
– Using Phase Shifting Transformers
– Achieve higher pulse operation of the total
converter installation
• In ETAP
– Phase shift is specified in the tab page of the
transformer editor

©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 36

 Reducing System
Harmonics (cont’d)
• Either standard phase shift or special phase
shift can be used

©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 37

 Reducing System
Harmonics (cont’d)
• Add Active Filters

– Instantly adapts to changing source and load

conditions

– Costly

– MVA Limitation

©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 38

 Voltage Distortion Limits
Recommended Practices for Utilities (IEEE
519): Bus Voltage Individual Total Voltage
Distortion Distortion
At
(%) THD (%)
PCC
69 kV and below 3.0 5.0
69.001 kV through 161kV 1.5 2.5
161.001 and above 1.0 1.5

In ETAP:
Specify Harmonic Distortion Limits in Harmonic
Page of Bus Editor:

©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 39

 Current Distortion Limits
Recommended Practices for General
Distribution Systems (IEEE 519):

©1996-2013 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics Slide 40