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Defluoridation of Ground Water Using Low Cost Adsorbents

Article  in  International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering · October 2017

DOI: 10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0505

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 ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 10, No. 05

DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0505
www.cafetinnova.org October 2017, P.P. 967-972

Defluoridation of Ground Water Using Low Cost Adsorbents

GAYATHRI G1*, KUMAR RAJU B C1, DINESH SHANKAR REDDY2 AND BEULAH M3
1
Department of Civil Engineering, ACS College of Engineering, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
2
Department of Chemical Engineering, JNTUA, Anathapurum, Andhra Pradesh, India
3
Department of Civil Engineering, Christ University, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
Email: *gayathri.jayaram30@gmail.com

Abstract: The main aim of this experimental investigation was to develop inexpensive and safe method of
fluoride removal. The adsorbents used in this investigation are amla powder, coconut shell powder, neem
powder and turmeric powder. All adsorbents used are inexpensive and nontoxic materials, available easily in
nature and locally at village/rural level. Some of the adsorbents are very effective in removal of fluoride ion&
can be used a defluoridating agents but they impart color and turbidity to the treated drinking water. Among all
adsorbents used, amla powder was found to be the most and cost effective in adsorbing fluorine ions. Coconut
shell powder was also found to be an efficient adsorbent to certain extent. Turmeric powder was also capable of
adsorbing fluoride ions at lower pH value. Batch experiments were conducted, fluoride removal capacity was
studied with respect to time and flow rates lit/day respectively. Finally, it has been observed that adsorbents
were definitely having good adsorbent capacity and fluoride concentrations are well within permissible limits.
Keywords: Fluoride Removal, Drinking Water, Amla powder, Coconut shell powder, Turmeric powder, Neem
powder.

1. Introduction valley bottoms where the ground water level is

Fluorine is one of the most common elements in the
earth’s crust, where it occurs in amounts comparable
to carbon, nitrogen or chloride. It is the most
electronegative element and highly reactive, thus
combining with all other elements, except argon,
helium and neon, to form ionic or covalent fluorides.
Fluorine is found in small amounts both in
sedimentary rocks and igneous rocks but exists
primarily as Fluorapatite (Ca5F (PO4)3) and fluorite
(CaF2).
Through weathering of primary silicates and
associated accessory minerals like fluorite, fluoride is
released to soil and ground water. Leaching of
fluoride containing minerals may yield fluoride in
solution, commonly at most a few mg/l, although
much higher concentrations may be found. Fluoride
substitutes freely for hydroxyl ions and may be a
minor constituent of many clay minerals and mica. In
water, fluoride can form a number of complexes or
exist in free form and eventually precipitates as
fluorite.
Industrial pollution, from aluminum and fertilizer
plants, also release fluoride species to air, soil and
water. Volcanic activity is another source of fluoride
(Fluoride content in Lake Nakuru in Kenya due to
subsurface volcanic activity is as high as 2500 mg/l).
Fluoride can consequently be released through
weathering of primary minerals and then partly be re-
deposited on earth’s crust in a more soluble form,
presumably as CaF2 (Parlikar et. al., 2013) These
carbonate precipitates are common in areas with low
precipitation and can accumulate in thick layers in
Received: March 23, 2017; Accepted: July 21 2017; Published: October 30, 2017
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering, 10(05), 967-972, 2017, DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0505
Copyright ©2017 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved.
shallow. They often contain high amount of fluoride
(up to 10000 mg/kg was found in the tests earlier
mentioned).
1.2 Effects of Fluoride
The effects of fluoride on human health are listed
below.
 Skeletal fluorosis
 Dental fluorosis
 Risk of fractures in bones
 Immune deficiency
 Cancer
It is estimated that more than 11 million people in
India, in 160 districts spread over 16 states, are
affected with fluorosis, caused by continuous
ingestion of water with excess fluoride content,
ranging from 1.5mg/l to 16mg/lit is caused mainly by
deposition of fluoride in bones and cartilage including
metabolic disorders, mottled teeth and dental caries,
stiffened joints, a bent skeletal structure and in acute
cases even paralysis. Researchers at the University of
Bordeaux in France studied 3578 people of 65 years
have developed risk of hip fracture when the fluoride
content in drinking water exceeds 1.8mg/l. At the
University Of Glasgow, Scientist has found there
was drastic decrease in white blood cells in people
affected with fluorosis. Immunity fell down and was
affected with serious ailments. It also becomes
responsible for malfunctioning of lever kidney,
respiratory system, digestive system, excretive
system, and destruction of enzymes. All these are the
major effects of non skeletal fluorosis. (Bulusu et al.,
1979).
 968 GAYATHRI G, KUMAR R AJU B C, D INESH SHANKAR REDDY AND B EULAH M

Table 1: Effects of concentration of Fluoride. 2. Materials and Methodology

Cf ( mg/L) Effect 2.1 Materials used as adsorbents
< 1.0 Reduces dental caries Adsorbents which are locally available, inexpensive
1.0 – 1.5 Marginal risk of fluorosis and nontoxic are used and batch experiment
1.5 – 3.0 High risk of dental fluorosis conducted. A PH meter was used for measurement
3.0 – 10.0 Leads to skeletal fluorosis with and a magnetic stirrer was used for continuous
adverse change in bones shaking. Amla powder, turmeric powder, neem
>10.0 Crippling and skeletal fluorosis powder, coconut shell powder, mixed with different
1.3 Distribution of fluoride in India sand proportions was used for conducting experiments
(Santhi et. al., 2005, Koteswara and Mallikarjun 2014,
In India states of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar Chhattisgarh, PaliShahjee et. al., 2014).
Hariyana, Madhyaparadesh, Orissa, Punjab,
Rajasthan, Tamilnadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal 2.2 Methodology
are affected by fluoride contamination in water. This Fresh neem leaves were dried in an oven for 6-8 hrs.
involves about 9000 villages affecting 30 million The leaves were crushed in a grinder to get a fine
people. The fluoride content of the water in some powder of grain size 1.6-1.8mm. Turmeric powder
villages is given in the table (Priya Goswami et al., was got from market in form of dry powder. Amla
2015). was also got from market in the form of dry powder
There are various reasons of accumulation of fluoride and it was made to undergo sieve analysis to obtain
concentration in water. Digging up of shallow the grain size of 1.6-1.8mm. Coconut shell powder of
aquifers has resulted in declining levels of ground two size 40mm and 400 mm was crushed in a crusher
water. As a result of this, aquifers at depth is used this to get a uniform powder of the same grain size (Rao
contains excessive fluoride (Gupta et. al., 1988). and Bhole, 2000).

Table 2: Concentration of fluoride in different States 2.2.1 Spectrophotometric methods

of India In this method, a compound of a metal such as
aluminum, iron, thorium, zirconium, lanthanum or
Place Fluoride in PPM cerium reacts within indicator dye to formacomples of
Jammu & Kashmir 0.2 to 18 low dissociation constant. This complex reacts with
Himachal Pradesh 0.2 to 6.5 fluoride to give a new complex (Killedar et al. 1992).
Rajastan >1.5 Due to the change in the structure of the complex, the
Harayana 0.2 to 0.6 absorption spectrum also shifts relative to the
Bihar 0.35 to 15 spectrum for the fluoride- free reagent solutions. This
West Bengal 12.0 change can be detected by using a spectrophotometer.
Chhattisgarh 15 to 20 One of the important dyes used is trisodium 2-
Orissa 8.2 to 13.2 (parasulfophenylazo)-1,8-dihydroxy-36- naphthalene
Maharashtra 0.7 to 6.0 disulfonate, commonly known as SPANDNS to form
1.4 Distribution of fluoride in Karnataka state a red colored complex. Fluoride bleaches the red color
of the complex and hence the change in absorbance
In Karnataka fluoride concentration in ground water can be measured using a spectrophotometer (Jamode
varies from 0mg/l to 8mg/l. In general ground water et. al., 2014a, 2014b).
from Belgaum, Bidar, Chickamagulur, Dakshina
Kannada, Kodagu, Hassan, Shimoga, Udupi and Uttar 2.2.2 Batch experiments
Karnataka districts shows values within permissible
limits of Bureau of Indian Drinking water Standards.
High levels of fluoride content above the permissible Water sample (ml) +
limits occur in parts of Bellary, Bijapur, Chitradurga, adsorbent
and Gulbarga, Kolar, Mandya, Mysore and Raichur
districts. Magnetic stirrer
Table 3: Concentration distribution of fluoride in
Karnataka
Place Fluoride in mg/lt
Figure 1: Experimental set up for batch experiment
Gulbarga 4.6
Raichur 4.18 A known mass of adsorbent powder was added to
Bellary 3.32 50ml of water in a glass beaker. The initial
Tumkur 1.82 concentration of fluoride in water CF was 2.5mg/l.
Chitradurga 2.29 The mixture was stirred using a magnetic stirrer and
Kolar 2.21 fluoride concentration was measured using SPADN

International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering

ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 05, October, 2017, pp. 967-972
 Defluoridation of Ground Water Using Low Cost Adsorbents 969

method. The experiment is repeated at different time

3. Results and Discussions
intervals for all the adsorbents used. The results are
tabulated graphically. It is found that the initial 3.1 Results of Batch experiments
fluoride concentration drastically reduced and some
When neem leaves was used as an adsorbent and
are within and nearer to the permissible limits
batch experiment was carried out, it was found that
(Bhargava et.al., 1991).
fluoride concentration increased from 2.5mg/l to
3.8mg/hence this material is not suitable for
defluoridation.
Amla powder of grain size 1.6-1.8mm was taken and
allowed to undergo batch experiment. Amla powder
of different quantities was added and batch process
was conducted. Fluoride was measured and it
decreased from 2.5mg/l to 1.4mg/l. Hence Amla can
be used as a material for defluoridation. But it imparts
color to the defluoridated water which is not harmful
to health but methods can be developed for color
removal.
Turmeric powder of same grain size was taken and
after batch process, fluoride was measured. Fluoride
concentration decreased to 1.6mg/l. So this material
Figure 2: UV Spectrophotometer can also be used as an adsorbent for defluoridation.
Batch experiments are conducted at different time Coconut Shell Powder was measured and added to the
intervals and different flow rates respectively. In beaker containing fluoride at different quantities.
Batch experiments, the only controlled parameter is Fluoride was measured; its concentration went down
time interval for which adsorbents which are nontoxic to 1,9mg/l from 2.5mg/l.
and inexpensive are used (Gupta et. al., 2014).
Table 4: Results of batch experiments
Initial Final
Sl Fluoride Fluoride
Adsorbent
No concentration concentration
in mg/l in mg/l
1 Neem powder 2.5 3.2
2 Amla powder 2.5 1.4
Turmeric
3 2.5 1.6
powder
Coconut shell powder
4 a) 40mm size 2.5 1.4
b) 20 mm size 2.5 1.3

Results of all the adsorbents used are tabulated

Figure 3: Magnetic Stirrer graphically as follows,
Cf in mg/l
3

Amla at 0.5gm
2
Amla at 1.0gm
Amla at 1.5 gm
1

0
0 300 900 1500 2300
Time in sec
Figure 4: Variation of Fluoride concentrations in water using Amla Powder.

International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering

ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 05, October, 2017, pp. 967-972
 970 GAYATHRI G, KUMAR R AJU B C, D INESH SHANKAR REDDY AND B EULAH M

Cf in mg/l
3
Turmeric at 0.5 gm
2
Turmeric at 1.0 gm
Turmeric at 1.5 gm
1

0
0 300 900 1500 2300
Time in sec
Figure 5: Variation of Fluoride concentrations in water using Turmeric Powder
Cf in mg/l
3

2 CSPt 0.5 gm
CSP at 1.0 gm
1 CSP at 1.5 gm

0
0 300 900 1500 2300 3000
Time in sec
Figure 6: Variation of Fluoride concentrations in water using coconut shell powder 40mm size
Cf in mg/l
3

2 CSP at 0.5 gm
CSP at 1.0 gm
1 CSP at 1.5 gm

0
0 300 900 1500 2300
Time in
sec
Figure 7: Variation of Fluoride concentrations in water using coconut shell powder 20mm size
The Figure 4 shows that the concentration of fluoride
in water Cf decreases very rapidly first for about 500
secs and gradually attains a constant value for 3000
secs. By using a greater dosage of adsorbent and
conducting batch experiment, fluoride concentration
attained a constant value of 1.4mg/l hence amla can
be used as one of the adsorbents for defluoridation of
drinking water. But it imparts greenish yellow color
along with little turbity after defluoridation process.
Various methods have been developed and suggested
by Researchers for color removal by use of activated
charcoal, rice husk, rice bran and a mixture of rice
husk and rice bran.
The Figure 5 shows that when turmeric powder of
grain size 1.4-1.7mm was used and batch experiment
was conducted, the fluoride concentration decreased
3000
rapidly for 450 secs and attained a constant value of
1.6mg/l at 2900 sec. After defluoridation, with an
initial concentration of 2.5mg/l, the water attained a
constant value which shows that it can be used as a
defluoridating agent. Weights of different proportions
were added in grams and variation was observed.
Turmeric imparted brownish tinge and turbity to the
water after the process, but methods can be developed
for color removal.
Coconut shell powder was taken and it was crushed in
a crusher to obtain in the form of powder. Sieve
analysis was done to obtain grain size of 1.4-1.8mm.A
known mass of adsorbent of 0.5g, 1.0g and 1.5g and
experiment was conducted at different time intervals
and fluoride concentration was measured. It was
observed that fluoride concentration decreased

International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering

ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 05, October, 2017, pp. 967-972
 Defluoridation of Ground Water Using Low Cost Adsorbents
drastically at time span of 600 secs and reached a
constant value of 1.9 mg/l at 2800 secs. The color of
the water after defluoridation was reddish brown in
color.
Coconut shell powder was taken and it was crushed in
a crusher to obtain in the form of powder. Sieve
analysis was done to obtain grain size of 1.4-1.8mm.A
known mass of adsorbent of 0.5g, 1.0g and 1.5g and
experiment was conducted at different time intervals
and fluoride concentration was measured. It was
observed that fluoride concentration decreased
drastically at time span of 600 secs and reached a
constant value of 1.9 mg/l at 2800 secs. The color of
the water after defluoridation was reddish brown in
color.
4 Conclusions
The purpose of this work is to develop a method for
defluoridation of drinking water at rural level. Several
methods have been developed have been developed
for removal of fluorine which requires expensive and
sophisticated devices. These cannot be afforded by
common man at village level. As a result, an attempt
was made to assess the study of defluoridation. So
fluorine removal is possible even in rural areas at
considerably affordable cost.
Many adsorbents were tried for the removal of
fluoride from drinking water. Amla powder was used
as adsorbent and it yields good results and acts as
excellent defluoridating agent. It can be used in batch
experiment and the material is readily available at a
lower cost. In batch experiments, the fluoride removal
for a given adsorbent size increased with time and
reached a constant value or equilibrium after reaching
about 45-50 minutes.
As the particle size was increased, the removal
capacity also increased. This method is simple
adsorbents are easily available. Turmeric powder was
found to be less effective for defluoridation. Neem
powder, when used as an adsorbent infact increased
the concentration of fluoride and hence it is not
suitable for this process.
Coconut shell powder of desirable grain size was
obtained and it was found to be an efficient and cost
effective method of removal of fluoride from drinking
water. In comparison, of all the three adsorbent used
in batch experiment, amla best suited with the greatest
extent deflouridating capacity. Turmeric powder is
also effective but less than that of Amla. Coconut
shell powder takes the last place and the fluoride after
experiment was not within the permissible limits. But
all the three adsorbents can be used for the
defluoridation and methods are the be develop for the
color removal and turbidity.
Hence, this study can reveal that many such
adsorbents can be used for defluoridation of drinking
water. This can be implemented at domestic or
community levels. The method is so simple that it
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 05, October, 2017, pp. 967-972
971
does not require any expensive, non-availability of
chemicals. Electricity is not required and it can be
operated easily by anybody. Hence these methods of
using adsorbents are non-toxic and environmental
friendly.
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International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering

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