Pre Final

Property Prediction of Heat Treated Steels
PES UNIVERSITY
(Established under Karnataka Act No. 16 of 2013)
100-ft Ring Road, Bengaluru – 560 085, Karnataka, India
Dissertation on
‘Property Prediction of Heat Treated Steels’

Submitted by
SACHIN V BAGALI (01FB14EME132)

MARUTI (01FB15EME412)
Jan. - Apr. 2018
Under the guidance of
Internal Guide
Dr. T. S. Prasanna Kumar
Adjunct Professor, Thermo-Fluid Domain
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
PES University
Bengaluru -560085
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
PROGRAM - Bachelor of Technology
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
PROGRAM-Bachelor of Technology
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the Dissertation entitled
‘Property Prediction of Heat Treated Steels’
is a bonafide work carried out by

In partial fulfillment for the completion of 8th semester course work in the Program of Study
B.Tech in Mechanical Engineering under rules and regulations of PES University, Bengaluru
during the period Jan. 2018 – Apr. 2018. It is certified that all corrections/suggestions indicated
for internal assessment have been incorporated in the report. The dissertation has been approved
as it satisfies the 8th semester academic requirements in respect of project work.
Signature with date & Seal Signature with date & Seal Signature with date Seal
Internal Guide Chairperson Dean of Faculty
Names of the students SACHIN V BAGALI (01FB14EME132)

DECLARATION
We, SACHIN V BAGALI, MARUTI hereby declare that the dissertation entitled,
‘Property Prediction of Heat Treated Steels’, is an original work done by us under the
guidance of Dr. T S Prasanna Kumar, Adjunct Professor, Thermo-Fluid Domain, and is
being submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for completion of 8th Semester
course work in the Program of Study B.Tech in Mechanical Engineering.
PLACE: BANGALORE
DATE:
ABSTRACT
Steel is the most widely used engineering material. Current study refers to the property
prediction of heat treated steels during Jominy type end quench test, where the steels are
heated up to their austenitizing temperatures, and subsequently end quenched. Four
thermocouples are placed at critical locations from which, the cooling curves are
obtained. One of the cooling curves nearest to the end of the specimens was used to
estimate the heat flux during quenching. Heat transfer in the specimen during quenching
was modelled as 2D axisymmetric heat conduction coupled with Austenite decomposition
to obtain the microstructure distribution and hardness at the locations where the cooling
curves were obtained. The measured hardness values were compared with the estimated
hardness values obtained during simulation. Modified Maynier equations were used to
predict the hardness based on volume fractions estimated by the model. The predicted and
experimentally determined hardness along the length of the specimen have shown to be in
good agreement. The validation of the volume fractions obtained is done using a
metallurgical microscope and image processing.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, we thank The Almighty for giving us the strength and ability
to accomplish this project work and also, we thank our parents whose constant motivation
and encouragement helped us to accomplish this project.
We express our deep sense of gratitude to our guide Dr. T S Prasanna Kumar,
Adjunct Professor Thermo-Fluid Domain. Department of Mechanical Engineering, PES
University Bengaluru, for his untiring and valuable guidance with constant
encouragement at every stage of this project work.
We are thankful to Prof. D Jawahar Pro chancellor PESU, Dr. K N B Murthy,
Vice chancellor PESU, Dr. K S Sridhar, Principal PESIT/PESU for providing us with
the means and resources to take on such project.
We are thankful to Dr. V Krishna, Chair Professor in Thermal Engineering,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, PES UNIVERSITY, Bengaluru for his
permission to carry out the project work.
We are grateful to all the teaching, non-teaching and administrative staff of
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Mr. Abhaya Simha N R and Mr. M P Sushant
research scholars of PMR Lab PESU for their kind cooperation to carry out our work.
We are also grateful to my team members and friends who have been very
cooperative, helped me in executing this project work.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Sl no Description Page no
ABSTRACT i
ACKNOWLEDGMENT ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iii
LIST OF FIGURES
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 What is UVG 1
1.2 Scope of application 2
1.2.1 UGV in current military operations 2
1.2.2 A description of development of robotics in Department of Defense 8
1.2.3 A description of the long term R&D strategy of the Dept. on Technology 12
1.2.4 A description of any planned demonstrations or experimentation 16
activities of the Dept. supported by UGV
1.3 History of UGV 20
1.4 General description for the project 23
1.5 Applications and Advantages 23
1.5.1 Advantages 23
1.5.2 Applications 24
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY 25
2.1 Survey of Previous works 25
CHAPTER 3
Project Description 28
3.1 Observation of a Need 28
3.1.1 Current Military Operations 28
3.1.2 Major Acquisition Programs 28
3.1.3 Department Programs and Activities 28
3.1.4 Long Term R&D 29
CHAPTER 4
Existing system and Proposed systems 31
4.1 Existing systems 31
4.1.1 Manual search operations using rescue team with help of dog squad 31
4.1.2 Aerially using aircraft like helicopter or robots 33
4.2 Disadvantages of existing system 34
4.3 Proposed System 35
CHAPTER 5
Design Description 36
5.1 Requirements and Criteria 37
5.2 Locomotion 38
5.3 Communication, Control and Power 39
5.3.1 Communication
5.3.1.1 Chosen Design and Reasoning
5.3.2 Controls 40
5.3.2.1 Chosen Design and Reasoning
5.3.3 Power
5.4 Additional Features 41
CHAPTER 6
Block diagram of UGV 42
6.1 Description of Block Diagram
CHAPTER 7
FlowChart and Algorithm 44
7.1 Flowchart operation of UGV
7.2 Algorithm for temperature sensor 45
7.3 Algorithm for pulse sensor 45
7.4 Algorithm for image processing 45
CHAPTER 8
Software and Hardware Requirements 46
8.1 Software Required 46
8.2 Hardware Required 47
CHAPTER 9
Simulation and Results 54
Conclusion
Reference
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig no Description Page no
Fig. 1.1 General view of UGVs 1
Fig. 1.2 Different UGVs used in military 4
Fig. 1.3 Shakey 22
Fig. 3.1 UGVs used in various forms of life 28
Fig. 4.1 Techniques used for rescue Operation 31
Fig. 4.2 Rescue operation using rope in mountains 32
Fig. 4.3 Rescue team 32
Fig. 4.4 Rescue operation using dog squad 33
Fig. 4.5 Aerial Rescue Operation 34
Fig. 4.6 UGV 35
Fig. 6.1 Block diagram of UGV 42
Fig. 7.1 flowchart of UGV 44
Fig. 8.1 LPC2148 48
Fig. 8.2 Pulse sensor 49
Fig. 8.3 Temperature sensor 50
Fig. 8.4 LCD Display of temperature sensor 50
Fig. 8.5 GPS working 51
Fig. 8.6 Camera 52
Fig. 8.7 Motor Driver 53
Fig. 9.1 Future scope 59

Nomenclature
q =heat flux, W/m2
Q= heat transfer rate, W
ρ =Density in (Kg/m3)
c =Specific heat (J/kg K)
Ø =sensitivity coefficient, K m2/W
k =Thermal conductivity (W/m K)
T =Temperature, in K (°C)
Tsoak =initial soaking temperature, °C
t = Time (s)
h =Heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K)
n =Exponent of JMAK equation
nx, ny =Direction cosines of the outward normal vector
ΔT =Degree of undercooling, in K (°C)
Δt =Time step (s)
ΔX =Fraction of phase transformed over Δt
σ =Stefan- Boltzman constant (5.67*10-8 w/m2 k4)

Chapter 1
Introduction
For engineering applications, it is necessary to obtain a correct blend of mechanical

properties like hardness, toughness and ductility in materials. Mechanical properties
depend upon the microstructure, chemical composition and thermal history of materials.
At present, steel is the most important engineering material and quenching is a widely
used industrial process to tune the mechanical properties and microstructure of steels.
Heat treatment often constitutes an important step in the processing of engineering
components.
Fig 1.1 The iron–iron carbide (Fe–Fe3C) phase diagram.

A portion of the iron–carbon phase diagram is presented in Fig 1.1. Pure iron,
upon heating, experiences two changes in crystal structure before it melts. At room
temperature the stable form, called Ferrite, or α-iron, has a BCC crystal structure.
Ferrite experiences a polymorphic transformation to FCC Austenite, or γ-iron, at

912°C (1674°F). This Austenite persists to 1394°C (2541°F), at which temperature the
FCC Austenite reverts back to a BCC phase known as δ-Ferrite, which finally melts at
1538°C (2800°F). All these changes are apparent along the left vertical axis of the phase
diagram. These changes may vary as the carbon content variation along the x-axis from 0
to 6.70 wt% C.
The composition axis in Fig 1.1 extends only to 6.70 wt% C; at this concentration
the intermediate compound iron carbide, or cementite (Fe3C), is formed, which is
represented by a vertical line on the phase diagram In the BCC α-Ferrite, only small
concentrations of carbon are soluble; the maximum solubility is 0.022 wt% at 727°C
(1341°F). The limited solubility is explained by the shape and size of the BCC interstitial
positions, which make it difficult to accommodate the carbon atoms. Even though present
in relatively low concentrations, carbon significantly influences the mechanical properties
of Ferrite. More the carbon percentage harder is the material. The iron–carbon alloys that
contain between 0.008 and 2.14 wt% C are classified as steels and from 2.14 to 6.67 wt%
are called as cast iron. In most steels the microstructure consists of both α and Fe3C
phases. Upon cooling to room temperature, an alloy within this composition range must
pass through at least a portion of the γ-phase field where the other microstructures like
Pearlite, cementite, Ferrite and martensite are produced.
In a typical heat treatment operation, a component is subjected to a thermal cycle

(involving heating and cooling) in order to obtain a certain desired microstructure which
results in the desired mechanical properties. In the past, appropriate heat treatment
operations were selected on the basis of trial and error procedures. The parameter which
was required for desired mechanical properties was based on the quantitative information
and experience. In recent years, due to the increasing demand for high productivity,
improved properly control, cost reduction and low energy consumption there has been an
increasing need for quantification of heat treatment processes and formulation of
mathematical models which enable prediction of the final properties.
In a typical heat treatment operation, the thermal history of the component, the
phase transformations and the resulting mechanical properties are mutually related. The
various interactions between the thermal, microstructure and the mechanical fields in a
typical heat treatment operation are shown in Fig 1.2.
The interaction between the thermal field and the microstructure is important from
the point of view of present work. In order to able to predict the microstructure
accurately, it is important to have an understanding of the mechanisms of phase
transformations.
Modelling and computer simulation of quenching process are efficient, economic

and important industrial tools. Advanced computer resource and tools have made it
possible to solve multiple complex parameters associated with quenching. Quenching
simulation will shorten the production lead time and can save considerable amount of
time and cost of several experiments. Thus, simulation of quenching presumes an
increasing importance in achieving the desired mechanical properties and therefore
increasing the life span of the end product
Fig 1.2 various interactions linking the thermal field, mechanical field and phase
transformation field in a typical heat treatment operation.
The accuracy of simulations largely depends upon the imposed boundary

conditions. The boundary conditions used for model heat flux in metal-quenchant are heat
transfer coefficient or surface heat flux. Heat flux or heat transfer coefficient is a key
parameter for simulation of quenching. Various methods have been proposed to estimate
the unknown heat flux or heat transfer coefficient. These methods are broadly classified
as direct solutions and inverse solutions. The direct method involves calculating heat
transfer coefficient using the lumped heat capacity method. In the inverse method
temperature history of materials recorded at interior locations of the sample are used for
calculating heat flux. Due to the transient nature of quenching heat transfer, lumped heat
capacity method cannot be used effectively. The Austenite decomposes during continuous
cooling in two ways (1) Diffusional transformation (2) Non-diffusional transformation.
Austenite to Bainite, Pearlite and Ferrite happens through diffusional transformation.
The Jominy end quench test measures hardenability of required steels.

Hardenability is a measure of the capacity of a steel to be hardened to a depth when
quenched from its austenitizing temperature. Hardenability of a steel should not be
confused with the hardness of a steel. The hardness of a steel refers to its ability to resist
deformation when a load is applied, whereas hardenability refers to its ability to be
hardened to a particular depth under a particular set of conditions. Information gained
from this test is necessary in selecting the proper composition alloy steel and heat
treatment process to minimize thermal stresses and distortion during manufacturing of
components of various sizes.
In our experiment, we are using the Jominy type end-quench test to measure the
hardness of steels. It involves heating the test specimen (26mm diameter and 75mm
length) to its austenitizing temperature (850 0 C) and end quenching it with water which
induces the formation of a different microstructure. The formation of a different
microstructure not only depends upon the austenitizing temperature but also depends
upon the chemical composition of the alloying elements. Hardness is measured along the
length of the specimen at determined locations. Hardness decreases as we move away
from the quenched end due to the formation of different microstructure with a change in
cooling rate.
Chapter 2
Literature review
In this chapter, the literature related to modelling and simulation of quenching process is
presented with the existing heat transfer modes for quenching simulation, Austenite
decomposition models and inverse heat conduction methods.
César R.N. Nunura et al. [1] presented a correlation between cooling rate,
microstructure and mechanical properties of Jominy end quenched AISI 1045 steel; the
experiment was mainly focused on heating and quenching the steel to different
austenitizing temperatures. Mehmet Cakir et al. [2] investigated the correlation between
the thermal properties and hardenability of Jominy bars quenched with air– water mixture
for AISI 1050 steel. The results of water quenched and water-air quenched steels were
compared at different pressures. SONG Yue-peng et al. [3] worked on improving the
non-linear mathematical model for simulating Jominy end-quench curves. M. Narazaki et
al. [4] used the inverse heat method for evaluating the heat transfer coefficient for the
quench end and validated it with a simulated model. Taher Ghrib et al. [5] used photo
thermal detection to obtain a correlation between hardness and the determined thermal
properties. The Jominy hardness profile by training an artificial neural network was
obtained by W.G. Vermeulen [6]. A relation between Magnetic Barkhausen Noise and
Hardness for Jominy Quench tests was obtained at low excitation frequency range by
Freddy A. Franco et al. [7]. Prasanna Kumar [8] worked on nonlinear inverse heat
transfer, coupled with Austenite phase transformation, microstructure development, and
hardness estimation on mathematical models during quenching of plain carbon steels. A
numerical study based on two-dimensional estimation of a convective heat transfer
coefficient during Jominy end-quench test was carried out by Philippe Le Masson et al
[9]. The serial inverse heat conduction algorithm developed by Prasanna Kumar [10] was
used to estimate the heat-flux components at the probe–quenchant interface. The
InverseSolver module of TmmFE software [13] was used to solve the equation. Maynier
equation [14] was used by M.Victor Li et al. to compute a module for the prediction of
steel hardenability. Material properties data (Density, Thermal Conductivity, Specific
Heat, Latent Heat and Enthalpy) and Time Temperature Transformation (TTT) diagram
data (as shown in Fig. 4.10) obtained from JMatPro software [15] were assigned to the
finite element model.
Chapter 3
Quenching studies
3.1 Quenching Theory
3.1.1 Quenching principles
Fundamentally, the objective of the quenching process is to cool material from its
austenitizing temperature sufficiently quickly to form the desired microstructure phases.
The basic quenchant function is to control the rate of heat transfer from the surface of the
part being quenched. As a result of quenching, production parts develop an acceptable
microstructure and in critical areas, mechanical properties that will meet minimum
specification after the parts are tempered. The effectiveness of quenching depends upon
the cooling characteristics of the quenching medium in relation to the ability of the steel
to harden.
3.1.2 Quenching media
The rate of heat extraction by a quenching medium and the way it is used substantially
affects quenchant performance. The cooling rate of an object depends on many things;
size, composition and the initial temperature of the specimen. A quenching medium must
cool the metal at a rapid enough to produce the desired results.
The slowest cooling rate is observed in furnace cooling, in which the specimen is
cooled to room temperature in the furnace and the power is shutdown. When the
specimen is taken out of the furnace, and cooled in air down to room temperature, it is
called air cooling. The fastest cooling rate is obtained by water quenching. In quenching,
the specimen is taken out of the furnace and immediately dropped in water. Quenching
medium can be oil or water but faster cooling rates are observed with water.
3.1.3 End quenching
End quenching is a process in which the heated specimen is quenched from one end. This
results in very high cooling rate at that end and reduces as we move away from it. This
results in varying microstructure along the length.
At the quenched end, cooing rate is maximum which results in martensite or

Bainite formation, but more often martensite. As we move away from the quenched end
the volume fraction of martensite reduces, and other phases like Bainite, Pearlite and
Ferrite are seen. Other than the quench end, the specimen is air cooled, which results in
formation of a mixture of Pearlite and Ferrite.
Theoretically the Jominy end quench test is a process to measure the hardenability
of a steel sample in which the depth of martensite formation signifies the hardenability of
the sample.
3.1.4 Theoretical understanding of heat transfer during quenching
Heat transfer during quenching is very complex and controlled by different mechanism as
shown in Fig 3.1 and 3.2(a, b). Fig 3.1 is the conventional log-log representation of heat
flux and wall superheat. The specimen is cooled through three different regimes of heat
transfer. The different stage of cooling in water quenching is shown in Fig. 3.2 (b) There
are three different regimes of cooling during quenching (1) vapour blanket (2) nucleate
boiling (3) convection.
As soon as the steel part comes in contact with the cooling water, a stable film of
vapour forms around the surface. The part is first surrounded by a vapour blanket. Due to
this vapour blanket the heat transfer is slower in this stage of cooling, which is
represented in the figure by the range D-E. In this regime heat transfer rate is minimum
and heat transfer occurs mainly through radiation.
As the part cools and temperature drops continuously, the thin vapour film
becomes unstable and the mechanism is then called partial film boiling or transition
boiling shown by the range C-D. The surface is alternatively covered with a vapour
blanket and liquid layer, resulting in oscillating surface temperature. The onset of this
regime is known as Liedenfrost point. With the decrease in temperature, the heat flux
steadily increases and reaches a maximum, known as critical heat flux (CHF), as shown
by point C.
Fig 3.1 Representative heat transfer curve during quenching of steel

Fig-3.2 (a) Cooling curve (b) Cooling rate curve during quenching in water
Further decrease in temperature leads to the next stage of cooling called nucleate
boiling which is shown by regime A-C. With decrease in temperature, the partial films are
broken into numerous bubbles and the quench media contacts the part directly. The liquid
near the hot surface become superheated and tends to evaporate, forming bubbles
wherever there are nucleation sites such as tiny pit or scratch on the surface. The bubbles
transport the latent heat of the phase changes and also increase the convective heat
transfer by agitating the liquid near the surface. This corresponds to rapid heat transfer.
The part is still very hot and the quench media boils vigorously. In this regime, heat
transfer is very high for only a small temperature difference. There are two sub-regimes in
nucleate boiling: bulk boiling and local boiling, shown by the range B-C. In nucleate
boiling in a saturated liquid the bubbles do not collapse and they leave the hot surface in
the form of jets and bubble columns, Local boiling, shown by the range A-B, is nucleate
boiling in a sub-cooled liquid, where bubbles formed at the heating surface tend to
condense locally.
The last regime is the natural convection regime; the surface of the part has cooled
to a temperature below the boiling point/range of the quench media. The heat is
transferred by the natural convection of the liquid. Bulk of the heat is extracted during
nucleate boiling regime. Rest of the heat is transferred by the natural convection of the
liquid.
3.2 Quenching Simulation
Simulation studies of quenching is based on the TmmFE software [16].
3.2.1 Introduction to TmmFE
Thermo-mechanical-metallurgical Finite Elements (TmmFE) is modular, with a set of

standard procedures at its kernel. Irrespective of the mathematical model describing the
physical / engineering problem, a set of algebraic equations is developed which will be
solved for the primary variables. The procedure for obtaining the set of equations is
common to all problems.
TmmFE provides the following types of elements and approximate functions of

the state variable: Elements:
1. 3-node triangular
2. 4-node quadrilateral
3. 6-node triangular
4. 9-node quadrilateral
5. 4-node tetrahedral
All the above elements except the 4-node tetrahedral can be used in both 2D Cartesian
and cylindrical axi-symmetric coordinates.
Approximate functions:
1. Linear
2. Quadratic
The following combination of the elements and approximations are readily available as
libraries in TmmFE.
1. 3-node triangle with linear functions
2. 4-node quadrilateral with linear functions
3. 6-node triangle with quadratic functions
4. 8-node serendipity with quadratic functions
5. 9-node quadrilateral with quadratic functions
6. 4-node tetrahedral with linear functions

3.2.2 Inverse Heat Conduction Problem (IHCP)
In solving dynamic heat transfer problems, many impediments may arise in specifying
accurate boundary conditions. The surface conditions may not be known priory. The
physical simulation at the surface may be unsuitable for attaching a sensor or the accuracy
of the surface measurement may be seriously impaired by the presence of the sensor. In
such cases, the boundary condition(s) in the form of specified heat flux / heat transfer
coefficient / surface temperature may be determined from transient temperature
measurement at one or more interior locations. This type of problem is known as Inverse
Heat Conduction Problem (IHCP). Fig 3.3 shows the difference between the direct and
inverse heat conduction problem.
Fig-3.3 Direct and Inverse heat conduction problem
IHCP is one of the many mathematically ‘ill posed problems. It is much more
difficult to solve the IHCP than the direct problem. However, its solution depends on the
temperature history at an interior location which is easy to measure accurately. On the
other hand, solution to the direct heat conduction problem, although easier, depend on the
measurement/specification of accurate boundary conditions, which is far more difficult to
achieve. Thus, there is a choice between relatively inaccurate measurements or difficult
analytical problem. An accurate and tractable inverse problem solution thus minimizes
both disadvantages simultaneously.
IHC algorithms are ill-posed in nature, which means that even a small error in the
input temperature data would get amplified in the estimated heat flux. Therefore, an
accurate experimental technique has to be designed in order to capture the temperature
history inside the part during end quenching. In this work, a 2D inverse heat conduction
algorithm [13] is used for estimating the unknown surface heat flux at the end quenched
surface during quenching of probe in water. The serial inverse algorithm used in this
work is based on the least squares technique, which minimizes the error in the measured
and estimated temperatures. The heat flux at the unknown boundary had been estimated
using the 2D series inverse algorithm during casting, welding and other metallurgical
processes.
3.2.3 Mathematical model
The direct heat conduction problem consists of solving for the interior temperature
distribution of a solid body form the data given on the surface, viz., and the boundary
conditions. However, in many practical problems, particularly when a component is being
designed to withstand certain environmental conditions, the surface conditions might not
be known a-priori. In such cases the surface conditions will have to be estimated under
simulated or laboratory conditions. Many fields of applications of such techniques may be
cited, e.g., casting and welding, heat treatment, polymer processing etc., The estimation
of the surface conditions with the knowledge of temperature history at critical locations
inside the body falls under the category of inverse problems.
Fig. 3.4 The 2D domain for inverse heat conduction model

The transient heat transfer within the solid body in 2D Cartesian coordinates and
cylindrical axisymmetric coordinates are implemented in TmmFE. The 2D Cartesian
formulation is explained here as detailed in the technical manual by TmmFE software
[16]:
(3.1)
with the following initial condition:
and the following boundary condition :
The last boundary condition (radiation boundary) is linearized as in:
Where
The boundary, qk (x,

1, 2..p. .l a re l u nknown independent flux boundaries,
y, t); k=
which are vectorised into (qk ) i ; k=
1,2..p. .l; i=
1,2..m. .n. O
nce vectorised, the heat flux is
treated as constant over small intervals of time, Δt. In the vector notation of, the
dependence of heat flux on space and time is not explicitly mentioned for clarity.
The IHCP is to find (qp ) m ; assuming (qk) i, k=1,..,l; i =
1,...,m-1 and k =1 ,.., p-1;
i=1,2..m are known (already determined). More explicitly, the flux values for all the
unknown boundaries till the previous time step and up to the present boundary till the
present time step are assumed to have been determined. The mth time step is the current
time step and the pth flux boundary is the current unknown boundary. The material
properties k, ρ and c may be treated as functions of temperatures, in which case the
problem becomes non-linear. The solution technique is based on finite element method
for the direct solution part, which makes this IHCP formulation applicable for non-linear
cases also.
To estimate the unknown boundary heat flux (qp ) m , temperature measurements at
known locations inside the solid are necessary and are assumed to be available. The
continuous thermal histories are again discretized, similar to the heat flux components
and are denoted by ( Yj) i ; j=1,2..s ; i=1,2..n, where s i s the number of sensors or
temperature measurement locations. It must be noted here that the number of sensors,
could be lower, equal to or greater than the number of unknown heat flux components, l.
The time step for discretization of the heat flux and the measured temperatures could be
different from each other, the time step used for discretizing the heat flux being an exact
but small multiple of the time step used for discretizing the measured temperatures.
The sensitivity coefficient, in its broadest sense denotes the first derivative of a
dependent variable. In connection with IHCP, we are interested in the sensitivity
∂iT/∂qi, where i
coefficient of temperature with the boundary heat flux. It is given by φi=
is the heat flux component. For linear problems, the sensitivity coefficient of temperature
with boundary heat flux can be used to solve the direct heat conduction equation
(Duhamel’s theorem) by writing
Where the subscripts 0, and m denote the initial and present time steps. This is based
on the principle of superposition, which states that, the temperature of the body at any
location in the mth time step is equal to the sum of the initial temperature and the
incremental temperature rise due to the individual heat flux vectors up to the present time
step. The incremental temperature rise due to the individual flux vector is given by
ΔTi =q
i *Δ
φi.
In the formulation of IHCP with multiple heat fluxes implemented in TmmFE, the
principle of superposition is extended to the independent fluxes and the sensitivity
coefficient is written in a way to bring out the influence of the multiple, unconnected heat
fluxes independent of each other. The definition of sensitivity coefficient, in this case of
multiple independent heat fluxes thus becomes:
which is read as: the sensitivity coefficient of the sensor at location j d ue to a change in
the flux at the kth boundary in the i th time step is equal to the change in the temperature
recorded by the sensor at location j d ue to a small, independent and isolated change in the
heat flux at only the kth boundary, in the i th time step, with no change in the other
boundaries.
Numerically, we define sensitivity coefficient for multiple sensors and individual heat
fluxes as:
Where i is the time step and j i s the sensor location and k is the unknown boundary
segment with r a s the number of future time steps. The numerator in the definition of
φj, k, i is computed by solving the direct heat conduction equation by finite element method
in the usual way. The terms in the numerator may be represented by the following
notation.
In the calculation of the above terms, it is assumed that the heat flux components (q
)
k 1…m-1; k=1 ...l h ave been determined and hence the temperature field at the m- 1th time step
is known, which becomes the initial conditions for computing them. This definition of
sensitivity coefficient enables us to apply FEM for computing the sensitivity coefficients. It
also gives us the method for solving the non linear IHCP.
The objective function for minimization is chosen as the square of the difference
between the measured temperature and the contribution to the temperature field by the
individual fluxes at the location, summed over all the sensor locations and the future time
steps. It is written as:
Using the definition of sensitivity coefficient, we can write Eqn. (2) as:
The above equation is differentiated with respect to the incremental change in the flux in
the kth unknown boundary at the present time step, to yield:
By equating the differential to zero, we get an expression for an increment in the kth
heat flux at the present time step as:
The kth boundary flux alone is incremented by this amount in the next iteration. The
iteration is continued till the flux increment drops to below a certain small value. The
converged value of the heat flux at this stage is taken as the kth boundary heat flux in the
ith time step.
3.2.4 InverseSOLVER of TmmFE
InverseSOLVER has been applied successfully for estimating the boundary heat flux,
surface heat transfer coefficient and the boundary temperature in a solid from the
knowledge of a measured thermal history at one or more interior locations. The software
is based on a serial algorithm for the Inverse Heat Conduction Problem (IHCP) and is
developed to estimate the time and space varying heat flux component at the unknown
boundary. InverseSOLVER is a module of the suite of software, TmmFE
(Thermo-mechanical-metallurgical Finite Elements), which run on a finite element
platform. InverseSOLVER can be seamlessly integrated to solve related engineering
problems like thermal stress analysis, alloy solidification, heat treatment etc.
Fig.3.5 Flow chart of the serial algorithm implemented in TmmFE for estimating
quenching heat flux
Chapter 4
Methodology
The research work is divided in three parts:
1. Experiment
2. Simulation
3. Validation
4.1 Experiment
Temperature – Time data is obtained from Jominy type end quench test using a small
cylindrical specimen (26mm diameter and 75mm length). The temperatures are recorded
against time with the help of K type thermocouples and DAQ (Data Acquisition System).
The result of this experiment gives a cooling rates in the specimen at determined
locations; due to which different microstructure are produced.
After end quench, the sample will be cut along the length and examined for
microstructure and hardness.
4.1.1 Specimen Preparation
Cylindrical specimens of C25, EN8 and EN19 (chemical compositions mentioned in

Table 4.1) steel of diameter 26mm and length 75mm were used. Four thermocouples were
placed at specified locations as shown in Fig 4.1. Bore of 1.3mm were drilled at a depth
of 17.5mm, 45mm, 65mm, and 71mm to place the thermocouples. The first three
thermocouples are placed at 8.5mm and the fourth one at 7.5mm measured radially from
the center. The top end of the hole is drilled to 5mm in diameter and 8mm in length and
counter bored with the 3.3mm diameter and 5mm length to facilitate the use of collets to
secure the position of thermocouples.
Table 4.1. Chemical composition of C25 and EN8

Steel C Si Mn Ni Cr Mo Cu V B N S P
C25 0.25 0.4 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.045 0.045
EN8 0.446 0.187 0.74 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.033 0.022
EN19 0.38 0.28 0.88 0.23 0.86 0.162 0.19 0 0 0 0.009 0.013
Fig. 4.1. 2D axisymmetric meshed model of the specimen

The CAD diagram of the specimen is shown in Fig 4.2 and Fig 4.3 shows the actual
specimen with four thermocouples placed at different locations.
Fig. 4.2 CAD diagram of the specimen
Fig. 4.3 Specimen assembled with four thermocouples and collets

4.1.2 Experimental Setup
The unique experimental setup Fig 4.4 was designed in such a way that it supports both
heating and end quenching of the specimen. The apparatus consists of a tubular furnace to
heat the specimen to its austenitizing temperature. It is well insulated do not let any heat
escape the furnace. A pump is provided with a flow regulating valve to supply quenchant
and a tank is used to maintain pressure head which feeds a nozzle to create a steady water
jet. The nozzle is located at the bottom of the quenchant sump with drain pipes for excess
quenchant. Fig 4.5 shows the block diagram of the experimental setup. A pipe is setup
inside the furnace, for the supply of nitrogen.
Fig. 4.4 Experimental Setup
Fig. 4.5 Model of Experimental Setup
4.1.3 Experimental Procedure
➢ The specimen was initially heated to its austenitizing temperature (850oC) inside
the furnace as shown in Fig 4.6 in a positive inert atmosphere maintained by
supplying nitrogen gas to avoid surface scaling. It was maintained at the
austenitizing temperature for fifteen minutes to ensure soaking.
➢ The quench probe was then lowered to 1 inch above the nozzle which results in
the circular flat end of the specimen being quenched with a jet as shown in Fig 4.7
➢ Cooling curves were obtained at the specified thermocouple locations using the
DAQ (Data Acquisition) system with a time interval of 0.5 seconds.
Fig. 4.6 Heating of the specimen in a furnace
➢ After cooling, the specimen was cut at the thermocouple locations using the
cutting machine (BAINCUT) and later the specimen was mounted using Bakelite
powder (BAINMOUNT) and prepared for polishing (BAINPOL).
➢ Using six different grades of abrasive wheels and red and green velvet with
diamond paste was used to polish the specimen.
➢ Hardness was measured at multiple points along the cross-sections of the

specimen at thermocouple locations using Rockwell hardness test. Hardness was
measured in HRB or HRC scale depending upon the hardenability of the steel.
Fig. 4.7 End-Quenching of the specimen
➢ The chemical etch was done at specific locations to reveal the microstructure and
further was used to validate with simulated results.
4.1.4 Experimental Observation
The experiment was conducted on C25, EN8 and EN19 steel samples, and the cooling
curves obtained for the same are shown in Fig 4.8 There were four thermocouple readings
recorded at an interval of 0.5 seconds during the period of end quenching. As seen below
in the graphs the cooling rate decreases as we move away from the quench end of the
specimen. The total time take for the specimen to completely cool below 100 oC was
more than 600 seconds. The slope of the cooling curve changes continuously with time
because of heat exchange due to latent phase transformation. It is when the Austenite
decomposes to Ferrite, Pearlite, binate and martensite depending upon the cooling rate
and chemical composition.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 4.8 Cooling curves at thermocouple locations (a) C25 (b) EN8 (c) EN19
4.2 Simulation in TmmFE
The inverse heat conduction model (IHCP) explained in section 3.2.3 is extended to
axi-symmetric coordinates with source term given by the following equation.
With the following initial condition:
and the following boundary condition (unknown):

A cylindrical axisymmetric FE (Finite Element) model was created and

discretized using a mesh of 1200 element (4 node quadratic) for a total of 1281 node as
shown in Fig 4.9. A two-side graded mesh was used to obtain more accurate results at the
boundary as shown below. Convective heat flux of 100 W/m2K and radiative emissivity
of 0.8 was assigned to the lateral boundaries. A temperature of 30 0 C was used as ambient
temperature for both the convective and radiative heat transfers for the finite element
model.
Fig. 4.9 2D axisymmetric meshed model with boundary conditions and thermocouples for
measuring
In this work, all simulation results were obtained using “TmmFE” software.
InverseSOLVER a module of TmmFE is a FEM based software tool, designed and
developed to solve heat treatment problems like quenching etc., the software mainly
performs two operations.
(1) Solve inverse heat conduction problem for calculation heat flux.
(2) Calculate volume fraction of phases and hardness using Austenitic decomposition
model.
The main inputs of the software are:
(1) Chemical composition of sample material (2) TTT diagram of material (3) Critical
transformation temperature (4) Recorded time temperature data at interior location of
sample.
Fig. 4.9 shows the finite element (FE) mesh of the specimen. Material properties
data (Density, Thermal Conductivity, Specific Heat, Latent Heat and Enthalpy) and Time
Temperature Transformation (TTT) diagram data (as shown in Fig. 4.10) obtained from
JMatPro software [15] for C25, EN8 and EN19 steel were assigned to the finite element
model.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 4.10 TTT Diagram (a) C25 (b) EN8 ( c) EN19
The outputs obtained by the software was:

(1) Volume fraction of phases (2) Heat flux at quenched end (3) Hardness in HRC
(4) Temperature history at preferred locations.
The working principle of software in based of IHCP and Austenitic decomposition which
is elaborated in chapter 3. The software is linked with an external output folder where all
processed data is stored.
Chapter 5
Result and discussion
5.1 Error Comparison
The estimation of unknown heat flux at the probe water interface using IHC method
requires temperature history of sample. A quench probe was heated to its austenitizing
temperature, soaked and then end quenched. During end quenching a thermocouple which
was fixed at a distance of 5 mm from the quench end recorded the temperature using data
logger with the time interval of 0.5 seconds. To validate IHC algorithm the recorded
temperature history was compared with inversely calculated temperature history of
sample. Fig 5.1 shows the comparison of measured and estimated temperature of C25,
EN8 and EN19 steel specimens.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 5.1 Error comparison of (a) C25 (b) EN8 (c) EN19
5.2 Model for Hardness Prediction
Based on Maynier Equation (Equation 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4), hardness of different phase bands
were calculated using the chemical composition of the steels (Table 4.1). Maynier
Mixture rule [14] was modified as in Equation 5.1 to determine the Vickers hardness at
the said thermocouple locations.
HV = 0.95*Xm * HVm + 0.8*Xb * HVb + 0.9*(Xf + Xp) * HVf-p (5.1)
HVb = -323 + 185C + 330Si + 153Mn + 65Ni + 144Cr +
191Mo + (89 + 53C - 55Si - 22Mn - 10Ni - 20Cr
- 33Mo) log (Vr) (5.2)
HVf-p = 42 + 223C + 53Si + 30Mn + 126Ni + 7Cr + 19Mo +
(10 - 19Si + 4Ni + 8Cr + 130V) log (Vr) (5.3)
HVm = 127 + 949C + 27Si + 11Mn + 8Ni + 16Cr + 21 log (Vr) (5.4)
Where HVm, HVb a nd HVf-p a re Vickers Hardness values for martensite, Bainite and
Ferrite-Pearlite mixture respectively. Xm, Xb, Xf a nd Xp a re volume fractions of
martensite, Bainite and Ferrite and Pearlite phases respectively predicted by
InverseSolver. Vr i s the cooling rate at 700 °C in degree Celsius per hour.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 5.2 Cooling rate curve vs Temp at 700o C (a) C25 (b) EN8 (c) EN19
Vickers Hardness values obtained from Equation 5 were converted to the Rockwell
hardness scale and compared with experimental results. Fig. 5.3 shows the comparison of
experimental hardness and predicted hardness of the C25 and EN8 steels.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 5.3 Comparison of simulated and experimental hardness

(a) EN8 and EN19 (b) C25
5.3 Etching of the Specimen for Microstructure Observation
Etching is a chemical process used to reveal the microstructure of the metal through
selective chemical attack. It produces color contrast, often selective to a particular
constituent in the microstructure due to a thin film oxide, sulfide, molybdate, chromate or
elemental selenium on the polished surface that reveals the structure due to variations in
light interference effects as a function of the film thickness.
A combination of different chemicals [17] is used to reveal the microstructure based on

the anticipated decomposed Austenite of C25, EN8 and EN19 steel specimens.
(a) Nital (Nitric acid + Ethanol) for Martensite and Bainite
(b) Picral (Picric acid + Ethanol) for Ferrite and Pearlite
(c) Violas reagent (Picric acid + Sulfuric acid) for Ferrite and Pearlite
(d) Sodium Sulphate solution (Sodium sulphate + Water) for Martensite
Chemical attack is done on the surface of the specimen for varying length of time based
on experience, repetition and expected microstructure. Fig 5.4 shows the microstructure
observation of C25 and EN8 under metallurgical microscope.
Distance 0 mm (Quench End)–
C25 (Nital) 5 seconds EN8 (Nital) 5-10 seconds
Distance 10 mm (Thermocouple location 2) –
C25 (Picral) 20-25 seconds EN8 (Violas reagent) 1.5-2 minutes

Distance 30 mm (Thermocouple location 3) –
C25 (Picral) 20-25 seconds EN8 (Violas reagent) 1.5-2 minutes
Distance 57.5 mm (Thermocouple location 4) –
C25 (Picral) 20-25 seconds EN8 (Picral) 25-30 seconds
Fig. 5.4 C25 and EN8 Microstructure observation in metallurgical microscope
5.4 Validation of Experimental and Simulated Microstructure
A comparison of the experimental microstructure (observed after etching) and output of

TmmFE InverseSOLVER is done using image processing (ImageJ). The image obtained
from metallurgical microscope has fixed number of pixels and the value of each pixel is
ranging from 0-256. A specific range of pixel value is selected to get a good contrast of
different microstructure and percentage is later calculated by the number of pixels
selected in a particular image. A comparison of EN8 and C25 for the mentioned
procedure is shown in the Fig 5.5 and Fig 5.6.
EN19 has martensite and Bainite microstructure distribution and both the microstructures
cannot be differentiated using image processing or any other tool, hence the validation of
microstructure is skipped for this specimen and is expected it to be similarly accurate as
C25 and EN8 microstructures.
C25 Specimen
Distance 0 mm
Simulated TmmFE output Experimental image processing
Distance 10 mm (T2)
Distance 30 mm (T3)
Distance 57.5 mm (T4)

Fig. 5.5 C25 comparison of Experimental and TmmFE output of volume fraction of
microstructure
EN8 Specimen
Distance 0 mm
Simulated TmmFE output Experimental image processing

Distance 10 mm (T2)
Distance 30 mm (T3)
Distance 57.5 mm (T4)
Fig. 5.6 C25 comparison of Experimental and TmmFE output of volume fraction of
microstructure
Chapter 6
Conclusion and scope for future work
6.1 Conclusion
In this project, a 2D axisymmetric heat conduction coupled with austenite decomposition
model was used to obtain the volume fractions of microstructure distribution during end
quenching of steel specimens. These results were used in predicting hardness by
modifying Maynier equations. The conclusions drawn from this experimental work and
the numerical results are summarized as follows:
1. The predicted hardness and experimental hardness were found out to be in good
agreement along the specimen length for all the steel grades tested.
2. The variation in error between the simulated and experimental cooling curves of all
steel grades as time progresses is found to be less than 2.5%.
3. The results shows that hardness of the steel specimen mainly depends on amount of
alloying element present in the steel, microstructure distribution and cooling rate at
700 °C during quenching.
4. The models presented in this article for the prediction of hardness can be used along
with Inverse heat conduction model and austenite decomposition model for the
prediction of hardness in practical processes such as heat treatment and welding.
6.2 Scope for future work

Further analysis can be carried out by applying the modified Maynier equation obtained
in this project with other composition of steels and compare it with experimental results.
The equation can further be integrated with the other software’s like TmmFE software for
giving the hardness along any location of the specimen.
References
1. César R.N. Nunura , Carlos A. dos Santos , Jaime A. Spim (2015) Numerical –
Experimental correlation of microstructures, cooling rates and mechanical properties of
AISI 1045 steel during the Jominy end-quench test
2. Mehmet Çakir, Abdullah Özsoy (2010) Investigation of correlation between

thermal properties and hardenability of Jominy bars quenched with air-water mixture for
AISI 1050 steel
3. SONG Yue-peng, LIU Guo-quanl, LIU Sheng-xin, LIU Jian-tao, FENG

Cheng-ming (2007) Improved Nonlinear Equation Method for Numerical Prediction of
Jominy End-Quench Curves
4. M. Narazaki, M. Kogawara, A. Shirayori, S. Fuchizawa (2003) Evaluation of Heat

Transfer Coefficient in Jominy End-quench Test
5. Taher Ghrib, Fatah Bejaoui, Abdelwahheb Hamdi, Noureddine Yacoubi (2008)

Correlation between thermal properties and hardness of end-quench bars for C48,
42CrMo4 and 35NiCrMo16 steels
6. W.G. Vermeulen, P.J. van der Wolk, A.P. de Weijer, and S. van der Zwaag (1996)
Prediction of Jominy Hardness Profile of Steels Using Artificial Neural Networks
7. Freddy A. Franco, M.F.R. González, M.F. de Campos, I.R. Padovese (2012)

Relation Between Magnetic Barkhausen Noise and Hardness for Jominy Quench Tests in
SAE 4140 and 6150 Steels
8. T.S. Prasanna Kumar (2012) Coupled Analysis of Surface Heat Flux,

Microstructure Evolution, and Hardness During Immersion Quenching of a Medium
Carbon Steel in Plant Conditions, Mater. Perform. Charact.
9. Philippe Le Masson, Tahar Loulou, Eugène Artioukhine, Philippe Rogeon, Denis

Carron, Jean-Jacques Quemener (2002) A numerical study for the estimation of a
convective heat transfer coefficient during a metallurgical “Jominy end-quench” test
10. T.S. Prasanna Kumar: Numer. Heat Transfer B, 2004, vol. 45, pp. 541–63.
11. T.S. Prasanna Kumar and H.C. Kamath: Metall. Mater. Trans. B, 2004, vol. 35,
pp. 575–85.
12. S. Arunkumar, K.V.S. Rao, and T.S. Prasanna Kumar: Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer,
2008, vol. 51, pp. 2676–85.
13. TmmFE by TherMet Solutions; http://www.thermetsolutions.com
14. M.Victor Li, David V. Niebuhr, Lemmy L, Meekisho, and David g, Atteridge: a
computation module for the prediction of steel hardenability.
15. JMatPro by SENTE Software; https://www.sentesoftware.co.uk/
16. TmmFE Technical Manual - TherMet Solutions;

http://www.thermetsolutions.com
17. Standard Practice for Microetching Metals and Alloys ASTM international

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Property Prediction of Heat Treated Steels

‘Property Prediction of Heat Treated Steels’

SACHIN V BAGALI (01FB14EME132)

Jan. - Apr. 2018

Under the guidance of

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

PROGRAM - Bachelor of Technology

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

This is to certify that the Dissertation entitled

‘Property Prediction of Heat Treated Steels’

is a bonafide work carried out by

SACHIN V BAGALI (01FB14EME132)

Names of the students ​SACHIN V BAGALI (01FB14EME132)

SACHIN V BAGALI (01FB14EME132)

Fig. 1.2 Different UGVs used in military 4

Fig. 1.3 Shakey 22

Fig. 3.1 UGVs used in various forms of life 28

Fig. 4.1 Techniques used for rescue Operation 31

Fig. 4.2 Rescue operation using rope in mountains 32

Fig. 4.3​ Rescue team 32

Fig. 4.4 Rescue operation using dog squad 33

Fig. 4.5 Aerial Rescue Operation 34

Fig. 4.6 UGV 35

Fig. 6.​1 Block diagram of UGV 42

Fig. 7.1 flowchart of UGV 44

Fig. 8.1 LPC2148 48

Fig. 8.2 Pulse sensor 49

Fig. 8.3 Temperature sensor 50

Fig. ​8.4 LCD Display of temperature sensor 50

Fig. ​8.5 GPS working 51

Fig. ​8.6 Camera 52

Fig. 8.7 Motor Driver 53

Fig. 9.1 Future scope 59

Q= heat transfer rate, W

c =Specific heat (J/kg K)

Ø​ =sensitivity coefficient, K m2/W

k =Thermal conductivity (W/m K)

Tsoak =initial soaking temperature, °C

h =Heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K)

n =Exponent of JMAK equation

nx, ny =Direction cosines of the outward normal vector

ΔT =Degree of undercooling, in K (°C)

Δt =Time step (s)

ΔX =Fraction of phase transformed over Δt

σ =Stefan- Boltzman constant (5.67*10​-8​ w/m​2 ​ k​4​)

For engineering applications, it is necessary to obtain a correct blend of mechanical

Fig 1.1 The iron–iron carbide (Fe–Fe​3​C) phase diagram.

Ferrite experiences a polymorphic transformation to FCC Austenite, or γ-iron, at

In a typical heat treatment operation, a component is subjected to a thermal cycle

Modelling and computer simulation of quenching process are efficient, economic

The accuracy of simulations largely depends upon the imposed boundary

The Jominy end quench test measures hardenability of required steels.

3.1 Quenching Theory

3.1.1 Quenching principles

3.1.2 Quenching media

3.1.3 End quenching

Names of the students SACHIN V BAGALI (01FB14EME132)

Fig. 4.3 Rescue team 32

Fig. 6.1 Block diagram of UGV 42

Fig. 8.4 LCD Display of temperature sensor 50

Fig. 8.5 GPS working 51

Fig. 8.6 Camera 52

Ø =sensitivity coefficient, K m2/W

σ =Stefan- Boltzman constant (5.67*10-8 w/m2 k4)

Fig 1.1 The iron–iron carbide (Fe–Fe3C) phase diagram.

The boundary, qk (x,

Table 4.1. Chemical composition of C25 and EN8

Fig. 4.1. 2D axisymmetric meshed model of the specimen

Fig. 4.2 CAD diagram of the specimen

Fig. 4.3 Specimen assembled with four thermocouples and collets

Fig. 4.5 Model of Experimental Setup

Fig. 4.6 Heating of the specimen in a furnace

Fig. 4.7 End-Quenching of the specimen

Fig. 4.10 TTT Diagram (a) C25 (b) EN8 ( c) EN19

Fig. 5.3 Comparison of simulated and experimental hardness

Fig. 5.4 C25 and EN8 Microstructure observation in metallurgical microscope