TOFD Notes

Veritec Sonomatic Ltd
TIME - OF - FLIGHT DIFFRACTION COURSE
(PCN Level I and II)
Prepared by Reviewed by Approved by Revision

No.
Print P. Carter J.M.Pitcher Peter W. Conlin 06
Sign
Date 15/8/97 06/08/1999 30/3/2000
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Sonomatic Ltd.
DEFINITIONS
Figure 1 Co-ordinate System

The following symbols are used in the text,
c velocity of sound
λ wavelength of sound
d depth of reflector below scanning surface
D thickness of sample being scanned
parallel scan in which direction of beam parallel to direction of scan
non-parallel scan in which direction of beam normal to direction of scan
PCS probe centre separation
s half of probe centre separation 2s
t time of flight of signal from a reflector
2to time taken for sound to pass through two probe shoes, i.e. probe delay
tl time of flight of lateral wave
tb time of flight of back wall signal
θ angle of beam centre with respect to normal to metal surface
γ beam cone half-angle
δt timing error
δd depth error
δc error in velocity
δs error in probe separation
δH error in change in couplant thickness
δh error in variation of surface height
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CONTENTS
TIME - OF - FLIGHT DIFFRACTION COURSE i

(PCN Level I and II) ................................................................................................. i
Definitions ..................................................................................................................... ii
fIGURES .................................................................................................................... viii
1. introduction ............................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Scope of the Course ............................................................................................ 1
1.2 Requirements ...................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Examination ......................................................................................................... 2
2. BACKGROUND AND CONVENTIONAL ULTRASONIC TESTING ........ 3
2.1 Background to Non Destructive Testing .......................................................... 3
2.2 Ultrasonic Non-Destructive Testing ................................................................. 4
2.3 Pulse-echo detection of flaws.............................................................................. 4
2.4 Flaw Sizing with the Pulse-echo Technique ......................................................... 5
2.5 Comparison of Flaw Sizing Accuracy for different Techniques ......................... 7
3. The time-of-flight diffraction technique ..................................................................... 9
3.1 Background to the Importance of the TOFD Technique ...................................... 9
3.2 History of TOFD Development ......................................................................... 10
3.3 Principle of TOFD ............................................................................................... 12
3.3.1 Diffraction process ....................................................................................... 12
3.3.2 Angular Variation of Diffraction Signals .................................................... 13
3.3.3 Basic TOFD Set-up ...................................................................................... 14
3.3.3.1 Probe type and wave type ..................................................................... 14
3.3.3.2 Signals observed ................................................................................... 15
3.3.3.3 Phase Relationships .............................................................................. 17
3.3.3.4 Depth Calculation ................................................................................. 19
3.3.3.5 Measurement of Time and initial Probe-Centre-Separation ................. 20
3.3.3.6 Patterns for Surface breaking Defects ................................................... 22
3.4 Types of TOFD Scan .......................................................................................... 24
3.5 Main Uses Of TOFD ........................................................................................... 27
3.6 Summary of Advantages and Disadvantages of TOFD ...................................... 27
3.7 Basic Steps in the Sizing or Detection of Flaws ................................................. 29
4. Data collection SYSTEM ....................................................................................... 31
4.1 Basic Hardware ................................................................................................. 31
4.2 Advantage of Digital Recording ...................................................................... 32
4.3 Digitisation of the Analogue Ultrasonic Signals ............................................ 33
4.3.1 Amplitude ................................................................................................... 33
4.3.2 Sampling Rate ............................................................................................ 35
4.4 Selection of frequencies for filtering ............................................................... 38
4.5 Amount of data collected during an inspection ............................................. 39
4.6 Grey scale imaging and B-scans ....................................................................... 39
4.7 Signal Averaging ............................................................................................... 41
4.8 Pulse Width Control ......................................................................................... 43
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4.9 Pulse Repetition Frequency ............................................................................. 44

4.10 Software ........................................................................................................... 45
4.10.1 On-line ...................................................................................................... 45
4.10.2 Analysis and Of-line facilities ................................................................. 46
5. design of tofd inspection ......................................................................................... 45
5.1 Precision and Resolution .................................................................................. 45
5.2 Beam Spread Considerations ........................................................................... 46
5.2.1 Basics for calculation of beam spread ...................................................... 46
5.2.2 Example of selection of number of scans for an inspection ................... 49
5.3 Examination of Material to be Inspected ........................................................... 52
5.4 Choice of Probe Angle ..................................................................................... 52
5.5 Choice of Probe Frequency ............................................................................. 53
5.6 Choice of Probe-Centre-Separation ............................................................... 54
5.7 Calibration and Setting of Gain ....................................................................... 54
5.7.1 Gain is not dependent on reflector size ................................................... 54
5.7.2 Use of diffraction signal from slots to set gain ........................................ 55
5.7.3 Use of grain noise or “grass” to set the gain ............................................ 55
5.7.4 Effect of attenuation or coarse grain noise on gain setting ......................... 56
5.7.5 Calibration or checking of the inspection set up ..................................... 56
5.8 Digitisation Rate and Pulse Repetition Frequency ....................................... 57
5.9 Region of A-scan to be Digitised ..................................................................... 57
5.10 Signal Averaging and Pulse-width ................................................................. 58
5.11 No signals - Common faults ........................................................................... 58
5.12 Manual versus Mechanical Scanning ............................................................ 59
5.12.1 General ...................................................................................................... 59
5.12.2 Manual Scanning ...................................................................................... 59
5.12.3 Mechanical Scanning ............................................................................... 60
5.12.4 Sampling Interval ..................................................................................... 60
5.13 Temperature ...................................................................................................... 60
5.14 Couplant ........................................................................................................... 60
5.15 Special Techniques ........................................................................................... 61
5.15.1 Double Skip ............................................................................................... 61
5.15.2 Use of Mode Converted Echoes ................................................................ 61
5.15.3 Use of Off-Axis Scans ................................................................................ 62
5.16 Summary of Choice of Parameters for a TOFD Scan ................................. 62
6. Errors ....................................................................................................................... 63
6.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 63
6.2 Timing Errors .................................................................................................... 63
6.3 Near surface Problems ...................................................................................... 66
6.4 Dead Zones ....................................................................................................... 67
6.4.1 Lateral wave dead zone ............................................................................. 67
6.4.2 Backwall Dead Zone .................................................................................. 67
6.5 Off-Axis Error and Back Wall Blind Zone ..................................................... 68
6.5.1 Off-axis depth error ................................................................................... 68
6.5.2 Back wall blind zone .................................................................................. 69
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6.6 Spatial Resolution of embedded defects ............................................................ 70

6.7 Effect of change in Probe Separation and Importance of Calibration with
Lateral and Back wall signals .................................................................................. 71
6.7.1 Change in Probe Separation ....................................................................... 71
6.7.2 Importance of Calibration ........................................................................... 71
6.8 Errors in couplant depth, surface height variations and velocity ................. 73
6.8.1 Error due to variations in couplant depth ................................................... 73
6.8.2 Error due to variations in surface profile .................................................... 74
6.8.3 Velocity error ................................................................................................ 75
6.9 Index Point Migration Errors ............................................................................. 75
6.10 Other Errors ...................................................................................................... 76
6.11 Multiple Arcs ..................................................................................................... 77
6.12 Large Grained Materials ................................................................................ 77
6.12.1 General ...................................................................................................... 77
6.12.2 Cladding .................................................................................................... 77
6.13 Overall Errors and Monitoring Growth ........................................................ 78
6.13.1 Overall Errors ........................................................................................... 78
6.13.2 Monitoring Defect Growth ..................................................................... 79
6.14 Estimate of Flaw Length from a TOFD D-Scan ......................................... 79
6.14.1 Introduction .............................................................................................. 79
6.14.2 Estimation of length for flaws with profiles parallel to the metal surface
................................................................................................................................ 80
6.14.2.1 Use of shaped cursor representing a point source ......................... 80
6.14.2.2 Measurement of beam spread .......................................................... 81
6.14.2.3 Use of the SAFT technique to measure length .............................. 81
6.14.3 Estimation of length for flaws with curved profiles (rear surface breaking) 82
6.14.4 Conclusion ................................................................................................ 83
7 Data assessment - flaw characterisation ................................................................ 83
7.1 Basic analysis ..................................................................................................... 83
7.2 Introduction to Characterisation ..................................................................... 84
7.3 Shear Waves ...................................................................................................... 85
7.4 Pores and Slag in TOFD Records ................................................................... 86
7.5 Internal Cracks .................................................................................................. 88
7.6 Upper Surface Breaking Cracks ...................................................................... 88
7.7 Lower Surface Breaking Cracks ...................................................................... 89
7.8 Effect of changing Defect Profile .................................................................... 90
7.9 Weld Root Flaws and Backwall Features ....................................................... 91
7.10 Crack Transparency ........................................................................................ 92
7.11 Transverse Flaws ............................................................................................. 92
7.12 Uncategorized Flaws ....................................................................................... 93
7.13 Additional Scans for Detailed Characterisation .......................................... 93
7.14 Acceptance Criteria .......................................................................................... 93
8 Analysis Software ..................................................................................................... 95
8.1 Linearisation ...................................................................................................... 95
8.2 Lateral/Back wall Straighten and Removal .................................................... 95
8.3 Parabolic Cursor ................................................................................................ 97
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8.4 Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique - SAFT ............................................... 98

8.5 Split Spectrum Processing ................................................................................ 100
8.6 Locus plots ........................................................................................................ 100
9. Curved sURFACES AND COMPLEX GEOMETRY .................................... 101
9.1 Curved Surfaces ............................................................................................... 101
9.2 Complex Geometry ......................................................................................... 102
10 Reporting .............................................................................................................. 105
11 Procedure Writing .................................................................................................. 107
12 Equipment and probe checks ................................................................................ 109
12.1 Equipment Checks ......................................................................................... 109
12.1.1 Screen Height Linearity ........................................................................... 109
12.1.2 Amplitude Linearity ................................................................................. 109
12.1.3 Time Base Linearity ................................................................................ 109
12.1.4 Probe Index Emission Point .................................................................... 109
12.1.5 Beam Angle .............................................................................................. 109
12.1.6 Beam Spread ........................................................................................... 110
12.1.7 TOFD Combined Probe Delay ............................................................... 110
12.1.8 Sensitivity ................................................................................................. 110
12.1.9 Resolution ................................................................................................ 110
12.2 Probe checks ................................................................................................... 110
12.2.1 Material Velocity Measurement .............................................................. 110
12.2.2 Probe Frequency ...................................................................................... 111
12.2.3 Probe Pulse Length .................................................................................. 111
12.3 Check of Attenuation in Material .................................................................. 111
13. TOFD TRIALS AND VALIDATIONS .............................................................. 113
13.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 113
13.2 UK Defect Detection Trials ............................................................................ 114
13.3 PISC II Trails ................................................................................................. 116
13.4 PISC III Trials ................................................................................................ 116
13.5 Other Validation Exercises .......................................................................... 117
13.5.1 Welding Institute Collaborative Programme ...................................... 117
13.5.2 Offshore Structures ............................................................................... 119
13.5.3 Validation Work at the EPRI NDE Centre USA .............................. 119
13.5.4 NIL Project- Non-Destructive Testing of Thin Plate ........................ 120
13.5.5 Evaluation of TOFD in a 350 mm test block, 1998 ............................. 120
APPENDIX 1 OFF-AXIS DEPTH ERROR .......................................................... 121
A1.1 Theoretical Derivation of Off-Axis Depth Error ........................................... 121
A1.2 Example of Variation of Depth Error with Off-Axis Distance ..................... 123
A1.3 Depth Error at Edge of Ultrasonic Beam ...................................................... 124
A1.3.1 General Situation ..................................................................................... 124
A1.3.2 When Beam Centres aimed at 2/3 Depth of Sample ................................ 124
A1.3.3 When Beam Centres aimed at Backwall .................................................. 126
A1.4 Depth Error at Edge of Weld ......................................................................... 127
A1.4.1 Single ‘V’ Weld ........................................................................................ 127
A1.4.2 Double ‘V’ Weld ...................................................................................... 128
A1.5 Conclusions ................................................................................................... 129
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APPENDIX 2 DETERMINATION OF DEPTH FOR OFF-AXIS FLAWS IN A

NON-PARALLEL SCAN USING MODE CONVERTED WAVES ..................... 131
APPENDIX 3 STEP BY STEP GUIDE TO A TOFD INSPECTION ............. 135
A3.1 Data Collection ............................................................................................ 135
A3.2 Analysis ......................................................................................................... 139
A3.3 Processing the Data ..................................................................................... 140
A3.3.1 Lateral/backwall Straighten/Removal ..................................................... 140
A3.3.2 Linearisation ............................................................................................ 141
A3.3.3 SAFT ...................................................................................................... 141
A3.3.4 Examine A-scan display .......................................................................... 141
A3.3.5 Select Part of an Image ........................................................................... 141
A3.3.6 Profiling .................................................................................................. 141
A3.3.7 Echodynamics ......................................................................................... 142
A3.3.8 Fourier Transform ................................................................................... 142
APPENDIX 4 PRINTING DATA ........................................................................ 143
A4.1 REPGEN ...................................................................................................... 143
A4.2 BMP File ....................................................................................................... 143
APPENDIX 5 tofdaids software package ............................................................... 145
INDEX ........................................................................................................................i-iv
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FIGURES
Figure 1 Co-ordinate System ............................................................................................ ii
Figure 2.1 Flaw size in relation to beam spread.............................................................. 5
Figure 2.2 Determination of Flaw Size by 6dB Drop Sizing .......................................... 6
Figure 3.1 Illustration of importance of accurate sizing measurements..................... 10
Figure 3.2 Representation of the Diffraction Process from Crack Tips..................... 12
Figure 3.3 Illustration of Diffraction.............................................................................. 13
Figure 3.4 Calculated Variation of Amplitude of Diffracted Waves with Angle...... 13
Figure 3.5 Cross Section of Typical Probe..................................................................... 14
Figure 3.6 Wave Paths for the TOFD Arrangement .................................................... 15
Figure 3.7 A-scan with no Defect Present ..................................................................... 17
Figure 3.8 A-scan with Defect Present........................................................................... 18
Figure 3.9 Basic TOFD parameters ............................................................................... 19
Figure 3.10 Consistent measurement of time of various signals.................................. 21
Figure 3.11 Surface opening crack in a non-parallel scan............................................ 22
Figure 3.12 Surface opening cracks on the back wall for a non-parallel scan ............ 23
Figure 3.13 Non-Parallel or Longitudinal Scan ............................................................ 24
Figure 3.14 Parallel or Transverse Scan........................................................................ 24
Figure 3.15 Difference between a non-parallel and a parallel scan ............................ 25
Figure 3.16 Uncertainty in lateral position in a non-parallel scan ............................. 25
Figure 4.1 Typical Digital System for collecting TOFD Data ..................................... 29
Figure 4.2 Digitisation of an A-scan............................................................................... 31
Figure 4.3 Digitisation with 5 samples per period......................................................... 33
Figure 4.4 Sampling a 10 MHz sin wave with a 20 MHz digitiser ............................... 34
Figure 4.5 Sampling a 10 MHz sin wave with a 15 MHz digitiser ............................... 35
Figure 4.6 Grey scale representation of the amplitude ................................................ 37
Figure 4.7 Appearance of a signal in a B-scan which occurs in a succession of A-
scans................................................................................................................................... 37
Figure 4.8 Principle of Signal Averaging ...................................................................... 39
Figure 4.9 Effect of Drive Pulse on Transmitter Crystal Element ............................. 40
Figure 4.10 Illustration of Effect of altering Driver Pulse Width............................... 41
Figure 5.1 Illustration of meaning of Precision and Resolution.................................. 45
Figure 5.2 Definition of Beam Spread ........................................................................... 46
Figure 5.3 Effective volume of coverage for two 60 degree probes aimed at 2/3T.... 48
Figure 5.4 Effective volume of coverage for two 45 and two 60 degree probes (5
MHz) aimed at 2/3T......................................................................................................... 49
Figure 5.5 Effective volume of coverage for two 60 and two 70 degree probes (5
MHz) aimed near surface region.................................................................................... 50
Figure 5.6 Complete coverage of + and - 40 mm about weld centre with 3 scans (30
mm apart) using two pairs of TOFD probes ................................................................. 50
Figure 5.7 Arrangement for determining gain .............................................................. 54
Figure 5.8 Arrangement for double skip...................................................................... 59
Figure 6.1 Example of depth error as a function of depth due to timing uncertainty64
Figure 6.2 Example of depth error as a function of angle for a given timing uncertainty 65
Figure 6.3 General TOFD Layout................................................................................ 68
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Figure 6.4 Illustration of Back Wall Blind Zone........................................................... 69

Figure 6.5 Illustration of where to measure lateral and back wall positions due to
change in PCS................................................................................................................... 72
Figure 6.6 Ultrasonic path through couplant layer ........................................................... 73
Figure 6.7 Illustration of variation in index point on surface of metal with defect position75
Figure 6.8 Example of Overall Error as a function of Depth ...................................... 77
Figure 6.9 Shape of TOFD D-scan record due to flaw with profile parallel to surface79
Figure 6.10 Measurement of beam spread .................................................................. 80
Figure 6.11 Shape of TOFD D-scan record due to flaws with curved profiles ................ 81
Figure 7.1 B-scan from Parallel scan showing characteristic pattern of mode
converted signals .............................................................................................................. 85
Figure 7.2 Appearance of Pores and Slag in D-scan .................................................... 86
Figure 7.3 Appearance of long Slag Lines ..................................................................... 87
Figure 7.4 Appearance of internal crack and thick slag line........................................ 88
Figure 7.5 Appearance of Top Surface Breaking Flaw ................................................ 88
Figure 7.6 Profile of Rear Surface Breaking Defect .................................................... 89
Figure 7.7 Appearance of signal from Defects near to or breaking lower surface .... 89
Figure 7.8 Change in Signal Strength due to change in Profile................................... 90
Figure 7.9 Use of Parabolic Shaped Cursor to detect if Defect Profile is Curved..... 90
Figure 7.10 Definition of acceptance criteria for TOFD .................................................. 93
Figure 8.1 Use of Parabolic Cursor for Determining Length ...................................... 96
Figure 8.2 Effective Beam Spread with SAFT .................................................................. 97
Figure 8.3 The SAFT Process............................................................................................ 98
Figure 9.1 TOFD Probes on Convex Surface.............................................................. 101
Figure 9.2 TOFD Probes on Concave surface............................................................. 102
Figure 9.3 Complex Geometry access to one Surface only ........................................ 103
Figure 9.4 Complex Geometry access to two faces ..................................................... 103
Figure A1.1 Ellipse - curve with constant time -of-flight ................................................ 123
Figure A1.2 Variation of factor f with off-axis distance X at d=1/2D and s=2/3DTanθ125
Figure A1.3 Variation of depth error with off-axis distance X at d=1/2D and
s=2/3DTanθ .................................................................................................................... 125
Figure A1.4 Definition of X at lower beam angle ........................................................... 126
Figure A1.5 Variation of factor f with depth at edge of beam for s=2/3DTanθ ....... 127
Figure A1.6 Depth error at edge of beam for s = 2/3DTanθ ........................................ 128
Figure A1.7 Variation of factor f with depth at edge of beam for s = DTanθ ....... 128
Figure A1.8 Depth error at edge of beam for s = DTanθ.............................................. 129
Figure A1.9 Variation of factor f at edge of a single ‘V’ weld (included angle 60°) for s =
2/3DTan(60).................................................................................................................... 129
Figure A1.10 Depth error at edge of a single ‘V’ weld (included angle 60°) for s =
2/3DTan(60).................................................................................................................... 130
Figure A1.11 Variation of factor f at edge of a double ‘V’ weld (included angle 60°) for s
= 2/3DTan(60) ............................................................................................................... 130
Figure A1.12 Depth error at edge of a double ‘V’ weld (included angle 60°) for s =
2/3DTan(60).................................................................................................................... 131
Figure A2.1 Two possible positions for flaw tip when tip offset from centre line........... 133
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Figure A5.1 Example of the output from the calculation of the beam spread for a flat
plate in the TOFDAIDS package................................................................................. 145
Figure A5.2 Example of the calculation of the depth errors in a typical TOFD set up
from the TOFDAIDS package .................................................................................... 146
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Scope of the Course
The purpose of this course is to make the reader and student aware of the Time-of-
Flight Diffraction (TOFD) technique and its ability to perform flaw detection,
location and sizing. Although the course will be based around the digital ultrasonic
data collection system currently available a number of similar systems are available
and have essentially the same major features and facilities.
The course notes are intended to be used as background and reference material for
both Level 1 and Level II qualification standard. Where there is a clear distinction in
the notes this will be indicated by typing the specific Level II material in italics.
Normal duration of the Level 1 and Level II courses are 40 hours.
Level 1 technicians should be capable of
i) setting up the TOFD equipment
ii) collecting TOFD inspection data
iii)recording and classifying the results according to written
instructions
iv) reporting the results.
Level II technicians should be capable of
i) setting up and calibrating the equipment
ii) performing and supervising the inspection
iii) interpreting and evaluating the results according to the applicable
standards
iv) define limitations of TOFD
v) write practical testing instructions and procedures
vi) supervise and train Level 1 technicians
vii) organise and report the results of a TOFD inspection.
Considerable time is spent during the course on the practical collection and analysis
of TOFD data since experience in the viewing and analysis of TOFD data is very
important. It is also very important to have in mind the different nature of TOFD as
compared to the more traditional Pulse-echo technique. The course will hopefully
extend the participants knowledge to be able to recognise the limitations of both
techniques and to be able to choose the appropriate technique or both for the
intended inspection.
In addition to the current course notes the British TOFD Standard, BS 7706 and the
European (Pre) Standard, CEN/TC 138 WG 2 N 143, should be studied. The book
by Charlesworth, J. P. and Temple, J. A. G., “Engineering Applications of Ultrasonic
Time-of-Flight Diffraction”, published by Research Studies Press LTD, is also well
worth reading especially for Nuclear inspections and the inspection in particular of
austenitic components.
Chapter 1 Introduction. Page 1

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1.2 Requirements
It is assumed that a reasonable level of ultrasonic understanding has already been

achieved equivalent to at least an EN473 Ultrasonic Level 1 for the current Level 1
course and an EN473 Level II for the current Level II course. All candidates should
have proof of a satisfactory vision test.
1.3 Examination
An examination will be set at the end of the course which will consist of,
Level 1 written examination, 30 questions - 90 minutes
Level II written examination, 30 questions - 90 minutes
The object of the examination is to demonstrate that ultrasonic practitioners are

capable of understanding the TOFD technique and its limitations.
Chapter 1 Introduction. Page 2

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2. BACKGROUND AND CONVENTIONAL ULTRASONIC TESTING
2.1 Background to Non Destructive Testing
Defects in welded structures may give rise to premature failure or unserviceability in

pressure vessels or piping systems. Thus welds need to be inspected and harmful
defects removed by grinding and or welding. The detection of cracks, particularly in
welds, before failure is thus very important since the consequences may be very
serious. Flaws which are crack-like may be actively growing, such as fatigue and
stress corrosion cracks. Other flaws may grow but often remain unchanged, e.g.
welding and fabrication defects such as lack-of-fusion, and the volumetric defects
such as porosity and slag. The latter type of flaws are more easily detected but are
not so efficient as cracks in raising local stresses and then growing to failure. There
are various non-destructive techniques available for testing metal components and
they are generally divided into two classes of detection, i.e.
surface opening cracks by magnetic particle
dye penetrant
eddy current
magnetic techniques
ultrasonics
and internal cracks by radiography
ultrasonics.
Surface opening cracks are usually considered the most important since they are
most likely to grow and cause failure. However, they have the advantage that they
can usually be repaired more easily than internal cracks. Dye Penetrant and
Magnetic Particle inspections have no depth sizing capability and the magnetic
techniques are also generally used for detection only. The Eddy Current technique
has a sizing capability but, depending on the material, only within a few millimetres
of the surface. Ultrasonics has both a detection and sizing capability.
Plant operators must satisfy the certifying authority that the plant is fit for service.
This process will include NDE, usually during the plant shutdown. Defects that are
found from the NDE may need to be repaired or the component replaced. Thus it is
very important to detect and size internal cracks because repairs may prove very
difficult and expensive and if it can be proved that the crack size is below some
critical level the plant may be safely left running.
For most internal cracks there are only two inspection techniques available,
radiography and ultrasonics. Radiography is best suited to detecting volumetric type
defects and planar cracks may only be efficiently detected if the beam of X-rays is
directed down the crack. Also radiography needs access to both sides of the sample
and has safety implications. However, radiography is very widely used and is a very
reliable technique for detecting many types of weld errors and will detect changes in
density equivalent to 1% of the wall thickness. Radiography generates images which
Chapter 2 Background to ultrasonics page 3

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are widely accepted and understood, it so gives a permanent record of the inspection
which can be stored away for future reference.
However, the most reliable technique for detecting and sizing planar cracks is
ultrasonics, but its sensitivity may only be equivalent to 2% or 3% of wall thickness.
Ultrasonics also has the advantage that it only needs access to one side of the sample
and there are no safety implications.
2.2 Ultrasonic Non-Destructive Testing
If an electric potential is applied to a piezoelectric type material it oscillates and if it

is of the right thickness will produce waves of ultrasound of the frequencies most
useful for inspecting metal components. This material is the basis of ultrasonic
probes which produce longitudinal waves, generally called compression waves. If the
longitudinal waves enter metal at an angle then they refract in the metal and
produce both longitudinal and shear waves, the angles of the two types of waves
depending on the velocity of shear and longitudinal waves in the metal and the
velocity of the longitudinal waves in the probe shoe material. Shear waves are
transmitted by a periodic shear force and can only exist in materials like metals
which possess shear elasticity. Liquids cannot sustain a shear force.
For normal ultrasonic inspection of metals ultrasonic frequencies of between 2 and
5 MHz are used. The corresponding wavelength of the waves are found from the
formula,
velocity (c) = wavelength (λ) * frequency (f)
Velocity is usually defined in units of m/s and typical values in steel are 5950 m/s for
longitudinal waves and 3230 m/s for shear waves. Since the probe frequency is in
units of MHz (and we shall see that time is defined in microseconds in the TOFD
technique) it is more convenient to define the velocity units as mm/µs (i.e. 5.95
mm/µs and 3.23 mm/µs respectively). In these units the wavelength in the above
equation is given in millimetres. Thus for the above frequencies the wavelength of
longitudinal waves is in the range 1 to 3 mm and for shear waves from 0.6 to1.6 mm.
For reflectors of size less than half a wavelength interference can take place in the
reflected waves and hence the minimum size of cracks that can reliably be detected is
equivalent to one half the wavelength. To detect small cracks in thin materials higher
frequencies are used but in thick material the increasing attenuation with increase in
frequency generally prevents the use of much higher frequencies.
For conventional pulse-echo ultrasonic inspections angled shear waves are very
important since at a given frequency they have a wavelength half that of longitudinal
waves, allowing for the resolution of smaller defects. Also, as will be seen in a later
chapter, for a given size of crystal diameter and frequency shear waves produce a
smaller beam spread and a consequently higher beam intensity and more accurate
sizing ability than longitudinal waves.
2.3 Pulse-echo detection of flaws

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An ultrasonic inspection of a sample is carried out by scanning the metal with a

beam of ultrasound. Any reflectors in the metal are only detected if the sound is
reflected back from the discontinuity and returns to the crystal element of the probe,
where it vibrates the crystal and is converted into electrical signals. In order to
reflect the waves back the beam must ideally be at right angles to the reflector
surface. This is the so called “specular” reflection. If the surface is tilted with respect
to the direction of the beam of ultrasound then the reflected waves may miss the
probe crystal altogether and the discontinuity will remain undetected. The
proportion of the sound beam getting back to the crystal falls off rapidly with
increasing angles of tilt and skew from this ideal position. A tilt of only 5 degrees
can cause the amplitude to fall by a factor of about 2 (6 dB) and 10 degrees or more
may result in loss of detection.
Thus for normal pulse-echo inspections with angled shear waves it is
important to scan the metal with a range of probe angles chosen to give the best
chance of detecting the expected orientations of the cracks of main interest. In
general a practical compromise has to be made. Vertical cracks are difficult to detect
because of the difficulty of getting an ultrasonic beam at right angles to the crack
surface and a pair of probes may be needed to detect the cracks (tandem technique).
The decision to report the presence of a reflector in pulse-echo inspections is based
initially on the amplitude of the signal compared to some threshold level. This is a
relatively simple concept which works well practically. The threshold level is usually
determined from the amplitude of the signal reflected back from a standard reflector
in a calibration block. However, since the roughness of the reflector surface, as well
as its orientation, directly effect the amplitude of the returned signal an awareness
of the likely probability of detection is very important. Ultrasonic inspection is not
perfect and the skill and experience of the operator is very important, hence the
need for training.
2.4 Flaw Sizing with the Pulse-echo Technique
The method of flaw sizing used in the pulse-echo technique depends on the size of the
flaw with respect to the beam spread of the probe (see figure 2.1).

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Figure 2.1 Flaw size in relation to beam spread
The basic assumption in determining the size of flaws that are smaller than the beam
spread is that the amplitude of the reflected signal will be proportional to the area of the
flaw in the beam of ultrasound. In this situation the estimate of size is based on the
relative size of the amplitude with respect to that obtained from a standard reflector at a
similar range. Standard reflectors are provided in various calibration blocks and consist
of flat bottomed holes, side drilled holes or notches. Thus the accuracy very much
depends on the degree of roughness of the flaw surface and its exact orientation with
respect to the ultrasonic beam.
For flaw sizes larger than the beam spread increasing the size of the flaw will have no
effect on the amplitude of the signal since the area outside the beam will not contribute
to the reflected signal. The flaw size has to be obtained therefore by scanning the probe
over the flaw and noting the position where a certain change in amplitude takes place.
This is illustrated in figure 2.2 for an angled shear wave probe sizing a lack of fusion
Figure 2.2 Determination of Flaw Size by 6dB Drop Sizing
flaw. When the probe is moved towards the weld the flaw starts to appear in the
ultrasonic beam and the amplitude of the flaw signal rises. Once the flaw area fills the
beam the amplitude stays constant until the beam starts to pass the other end of the flaw
, when the amplitude starts to fall. It is assumed for this explanation that a Distance
Amplitude Correction has been applied so that there is no variation of amplitude with

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range. The maximum amplitude trace across the flaw is called an echodynamic trace
and is shown in the bottom half of figure 2.2.
At the level where the signal amplitude is half that of the maximum signal it is assumed
that only half the flaw area is in the beam of ultrasound and that the centre of the probe
is opposite the edge of the flaw. Thus if the positions of the probe are noted where the
amplitude has dropped by 6 dB the size of the flaw can be measured and hence the term
6 dB drop sizing. If the distance between the probe positions is x mm then the width, w,
of the flaw is given by w = xcos(θ), where θ is the angle of the beam centre with respect
to the normal to the surface of the metal on which the probe sits. The through wall height
of the flaw (the critical measurement), h, is then
h = xcos(θ)sin(θ).
To determine the length of the flaw along the weld the probe must be positioned so as to
obtain the maximum amplitude signal and then moved parallel to the weld to determine
the 6 dB drop positions. The length is the distance between these positions.
Again the main problem with the 6 dB drop technique is the variation in amplitude due
to the possible roughness of scattering surface and the fact that the flaw surface is
unlikely to be normal to the ultrasonic beam.
Some typical smallest sizes of flaws which can be detected and typical sizing errors are
listed below from document IIS/IIW - 580 - 86 from Commission V of the International
Institute of Welding for pulse-echo ultrasonics.
Defect positions Through-thickness Length

Smallest Accuracy, Smallest Accuracy,
size, mm + or - mm length, + or - mm
mm
Near surface, 3 3 4 5
0-5 mm depth
Mid-wall, mm
5-25 3 3 4 4
25-75 3 3 7 7
75-125 5 5 10 10
Back surface wall
thickness, mm
10-25 4 4 4 4
25-75 4 4 7 7
75-125 5 5 10 10
2.5 Comparison of Flaw Sizing Accuracy for different Techniques
Other techniques are available for sizing flaws. For surface opening flaws, if access is
available to the surface the alternating current potential drop (ACPD) is an accurate
technique. The technique essentially measures the drop in voltage between two surface
contacts when placed on either side of the flaw, the additional voltage drop being due to
current having to flow around the flaw surface. Specialised eddy current type techniques

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(ACFM) can also measure the size of near surface flaws. One of the most accurate and
useful techniques for measuring flaw height is the TOFD technique which is the subject
of this course. The importance of the TOFD technique is seen from the comparison of
the accuracy of different crack sizing techniques summarised below,
Manual pulse-echo 4 mm
ACPD (surface opening only) 1 mm
TOFD 1 mm
TOFD when monitoring growth 0.3 mm

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3. THE TIME-OF-FLIGHT DIFFRACTION TECHNIQUE
3.1 Background to the Importance of the TOFD Technique

The most serious types of defects in welds and metal components are planar cracks since
they are the most likely to grow and cause failure of the component and hence the
importance of ultrasonic inspection since ultrasonics is the most suitable technique for
determining the position and sizing such defects. The importance of developing more
accurate sizing techniques than afforded by conventional pulse-echo inspections became
apparent in the 1960’s, especially in the nuclear and chemical plant industries. When
defects where found in these plants repair of the damaged components was often very
difficult or impossible, one of the problems being the difficulty of carrying out the
necessary heat treatment after welding. In the nuclear industry there was also the problem
of access and often high radiation levels. To shut down and replace such plant is a very
expensive exercise.
Thus the science of Fracture Mechanics developed to enable the growth rate of defects to
be predicted and to calculate the critical size of defect below which it was possible to
carry on safely running the plant Often, because of the difficulties in determining all the
properties necessary for the calculations (e.g. fracture toughness) very conservative
estimates had to be made and the consequent lifetime predictions for the safe operation of
the plant became very short.
If it could be proved by successive ultrasonic examinations of the defects that they are not
growing or they are growing at a much slower rate than predicted then this would be very
important to the plant operator. If the defects are stable and below the critical size then the
plant can stay in operation. If they are growing at a slower rate then the lifetime of the
plant can be extended. Also if the growth rate can be accurately measured then suitable
plans can be drawn for a programmed repair or replacement of the plant, again saving the
plant operator a lot of expense. Unexpected shutdowns with the consequent loss of output
and the need for unplanned repairs are the plant operators nightmare.
The need, in order to measure the growth rate of cracks, is accurate through wall sizing.
The inadequacy of conventional pulse-echo techniques is illustrated in figure 3.1. The
two plots show the predicted lifetime curve for a particular defect and it is predicted to
reach the critical size after about 1.5 years. In the top illustration is shown the results of
pulse-echo measurements of the crack height at the yearly plant shutdowns. Because of
the large error on the measurements indicated by the error bar the measurements can not
influence the conservative predicted lifetime. The bottom plot illustrates the results of
measurements with TOFD. Since the errors are now much smaller it is apparent that the
actual growth is less than the predicted growth and the actual plant lifetime can be
extended.
The ability to size flaws more accurately should also help to limit the number of false
calls. If the requirement is that a very high probability of detection is required for flaws
above a certain size then the threshold for pulse-echo detection has to be set considerably
lower than this size because of the large error with the pulse-echo technique. This means
that a considerable number of flaws, which are actually below this size, are reported as
being above this size because they appear with the pulse-echo technique to be larger.
Thus while a very high probability of detection may be obtained for flaws above the size
of interest there will be a large false call rate. This is made worse by the fact that the
Chapter 3 TOFD technique page 9

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distribution curve of flaw size against number of flaws usually rises towards the smaller
sizes.
Thus in principle the detection threshold for the more accurate TOFD technique can be
set much closer to the size of interest and thus greatly reduce the false call rate.
3.2 History of TOFD Development
Figure 3.1 Illustration of importance of accurate sizing measurements
In the last section the importance of accurate sizing of cracks was described, especially in
the Nuclear Industry. For this reason the National NDT Centre at Harwell (then part of the
United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority - UKAEA) asked Dr Maurice Silk to try and
develop an ultrasonic sizing technique more accurate than the conventional pulse-echo
method. In the early 1970’s Dr Silk developed the technique known as Time-of-Flight
Diffraction (TOFD).

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The two most important differences from conventional pulse-echo are

A) its more accurate sizing accuracy (typically ±1 mm and in a monitoring
situation ±0.3 mm) and the almost independence of angle of the flaw for
detection. The sizing is based on the transit time of the diffraction signals
and does not depend on the amplitude
B) it will be seen that with TOFD a simple amplitude threshold cannot be
applied for rejecting or reporting flaws since the amplitude of the diffraction
signals does not depend on the size of the flaw and all the data must be
analysed before any flaws can be rejected. Hence with the TOFD technique
training and experience are essential.
For a number of years TOFD remained largely a laboratory tool, but the realisation of its
importance and the proposed Public enquiry for a PWR Reactor in the UK lead to a
number of major trials in the early 1980’s to evaluate the best possible ultrasonic
inspection technique for the reactor pressure vessel and other major components. These
trials were known as the Defect Detection Trials (DDT). The trials were very important in
view of the international PISC exercise in the late 1970’s, which was aimed at
establishing the capability of the ASME Code ultrasonic procedures, and which obtained
poor results for the reliability and accuracy of conventional pulse-echo inspection. As will
be mentioned later (see Chapter 13), TOFD proved to be a very capable and accurate
technique. Many other trials and validations have been carried out comparing different
techniques and in all these tests TOFD has always proved to be virtually the most reliable
and accurate technique.
Because the digital systems available up to 1982 were relatively large it was difficult to
carry out inspections in the field. Thus the National NDT Centre developed a more
portable system for collecting and analysing the data. The system was known as
ZIPSCAN and was licensed by SGS Sonomatic in 1983 and sold throughout the world.
Sonomatic is now part of AEA Technology. Nowadays there are a number of commercial
digital ultrasonic systems available for carrying out TOFD inspections.
Initially TOFD was only developed and used as a sizing tool. It was expected that flaws
would be detected by the conventional techniques and then TOFD used for more accurate
sizing. A particular application was in the monitoring the crack growth of cracks detected
in major plant components, e.g. pressure vessels.
However, has TOFD became more accepted and used during the later half of the 1980’s,
especially by the oil and gas industry both offshore and onshore, its economic advantages
for detection as well sizing became apparent and these days TOFD is used in many
applications for both detection and sizing. Very often one scan with a pair of TOFD
probes along a weld will reveal all the defects in the weld volume. The ability to collect
an image of the inspection data (B- or D-scans) also affords advantages in difficult
geometrical situations or for weld roots since it is often easier to recognise new patterns in
an image than to characterise signals in a single A-scan. A good example of this is major
use of TOFD in the offshore oil industry for detecting weld root erosion.
The TOFD technique has continued to be developed by the major research establishments
(e.g. modelling applications for helping with the analysis of the data and optimising the
collection of the data in complex geometry) and by the inspection companies for different
applications.

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3.3 Principle of TOFD
3.3.1 Diffraction process

When an ultrasonic wave interacts with a long crack-like flaw it results in the production
of diffracted waves from the crack tips, in addition to any ultrasonic waves reflected from
the surface of the crack. The diffracted waves are much weaker than specularly reflected
waves used for conventional ultrasonic inspection, but they radiate from the tips in all
directions along the same plane as the incident ultrasonic waves as indicated in figure
3.2.
The phenomena of diffraction is nothing new and occurs with all types of waves, e.g. light
and water waves. It is very well known in light especially when light is passed through a
slit or past an edge and contributes to the resolving power of telescopes and other optical
instruments. To explain diffraction when waves pass through a slot
Figure 3.2 Representation of the Diffraction Process from Crack Tips
Huygens’ proposed, three centuries ago, that “each point on a wave front may be
regarded as a new source of waves”. Hence, for illustration purposes, we can think of
reflection of a wave from a surface occurring as outlined in figure 3.3. Each point on the

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Figure 3.3 Illustration of Diffraction
surface ( on a scale smaller than the wavelength) acts as a reflection point and produces
waves. Then as the separate waves cross each other interference takes place and as
explained by Young in 1802 for light “the resultant displacement is the sum of the
displacements due to each separate wave” and in this case the result is a reflected plane
wave. However, at the edge of the surface the waves from the tip are left and produce so
called diffraction waves. Nowadays diffraction is more accurately described by
Kirchhoff’s theory.
The phenomena of tip diffraction is just another technique in the repertoire of general
ultrasonics. The use of tip diffraction signals as long been used in pulse-echo sizing
estimations since it often enhances the signal when the probe is opposite the end of the
defect and used in this way it is sometimes called the maximum amplitude technique or
backward scatter tip diffraction.
3.3.2 Angular Variation of Diffraction Signals

The angular variation of the amplitude of the diffracted waves with is illustrated in Figure
3.4. The figure is not an exact
Figure 3.4 Calculated Variation of Amplitude of Diffracted Waves with Angle

reproduction and the reader should refer to Charlesworth and Temple (1989) for an exact
variation. The variation of the top and bottom signals from a vertical crack located mid-

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way between two TOFD transducers is shown as a function of of the beam angle with
respect to the normal. The amplitude has a maximum at around 65 degrees in steel, and
has a slightly greater amplitude from the bottom of the crack than the top, but the
amplitudes on the whole are very similar. Between about 45 and 80 degrees the variation
in amplitude is less than 6 dB. For the bottom of the crack there is a large reduction in
amplitude at about 38 degrees with the amplitude rising again around 20 degrees.
Typical angles in an inspection are 45, 60 and 70 degrees.
For shear waves the optimum angles in steel are about 45 degrees for the top and 57
degrees for the bottom of a vertical crack.
For defects which do not lie in a plane perpendicular to the line joining the two
transducers the calculation is more complex and is described by Charlesworth and
Temple (1989), but relatively large angles of skew have little effect on the amplitude.
Thus one of the main advantages of TOFD, unlike pulse-echo, is that the diffraction
signal is largely independent of angle and thus almost independent of defect
orientation.
3.3.3 Basic TOFD Set-up
3.3.3.1 Probe type and wave type

The TOFD technique is a crack sizing technique based on locating the crack tips from the
ultrasonic energy re-emitted by diffraction. The basic arrangement of the TOFD
technique consists of two probes in the pitch-and-catch configuration, with one probe
acting as the transmitter and the second probe the receiver. Such an arrangement provides
a large volume for inspection and provides for unambiguous location of the position and
depth of the reflectors.
Figure 3.5 Cross Section of Typical Probe

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A single probe could be used for the inspection but is not recommended, since it reduces
the location accuracy of the flaw tips. We shall see that a transverse (parallel) scan with a
pair of probes gives the accurate location of the flaw tip.
A typical probe is shown in Figure 3.5 and consists of a compression transducer mounted
on a wedge of perspex or similar material. The compression probe should be chosen to
have a short pulse length in order to give good depth resolution. The wedge angle is cut to
give compression waves in the metal at typical angles of 45, 60 or 70 degrees. The
transducers often have screw threads so that they are easily interchangeable with the
wedges. Couplant must be present between the transducer and wedge in order for
ultrasound to be transmitted. This design has the drawback that the couplant eventually
dries out and must be replaced.
The reason for using compression waves in the metal is that they travel at about twice the
velocity of shear waves and hence arrive first at the receiver. In order to work out depth a
knowledge of the velocity is required and it is much easier to unambiguously to work out
depth if one can assume that the signals have a compression velocity. When either type of
wave is reflected or refracted it can partially mode convert into the other type of wave.
Thus if shear waves were used and they diffracted from a defect tip compression waves
might also be produced and these would then arrive at the receiver first. If in this case it
was assumed that the shear velocity was the correct velocity the depth would be
calculated incorrectly.
After the compression or longitudinal wave has travelled through the shoe, however, it
splits up into the desired compression wave at the required angle and into a shear wave in
the metal at approximately half the angle of the compression wave. Thus shear waves are
present in the metal but the resultant signals generally occur after the compression
signals. Thus the resultant TOFD inspection data can contain waves that have travelled,
all the way as compression
all the way as shear
part of the path as compression and part shear.
3.3.3.2 Signals observed
Figure 3.6 Wave Paths for the TOFD Arrangement

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The TOFD arrangement is shown in Figure 3.6. The A-scan appearance with no defect
present is shown in Figure 3.7 and with a defect present in Figure 3.8. The main types of
waves seen are as follows.
Lateral wave
In general a weak lateral wave running between the two probes with the compression
velocity just below the surface of the metal is observed first. It obeys Fermat’s principle
in that a wave travelling between two points takes the minimum time. As we shall see
later, for a curved surface it will travel straight across the metal between the two probes.
On material with a surface cladding layer the velocity of sound in the cladding may be
such that the lateral wave travels most of the way in the material beneath the cladding.
The lateral wave is not a true surface wave but a bulk wave generated at the edge of the
beam. The frequency content of the lateral wave tends to be lower than the waves from
the centre of the beam (the beam spread is frequency related and the lower frequency
component has therefor a wider beam spread). For a true surface wave the amplitude
would decay exponentially with distance from the inspection surface.
The lateral wave can be very weak for large probe separations and may not even be
recognisable.
Because of the basic pitch-catch probe arrangement the signals from the near surface
region are very compressed in time and these signals may be hidden beneath the lateral
wave.
Back wall signal
A much larger signal reflected/diffracted from the back wall is observed after the lateral
wave because of the greater distance travelled. If the probe beams are only directed at the
upper part of the metal or there is no suitable back wall there may be no back wall signal.
Defect signals
If a planar type crack is present in the metal in the overlapping beam of the two probes
diffraction signals from the top and bottom tips are seen between the lateral wave and the
back wall. These signals are generally much weaker than the backwall signal but stronger
than the lateral wave. If the defect has little height then the signals from the top and
bottom may run into each other. Thus the importance of a minimum number of cycles in
the signals in order to improve the resolution of the signals from the top and bottom of
small defects.
Because the diffraction signals are so weak they cannot always be easily seen on a single
A-scan and it is only by displaying the successive A-scans from a scan in B-scan form
that the pattern of the diffraction signals becomes clear. Signal averaging is very
important in these situations because it improves the signal-to-noise ratio.
Again this is why TOFD is very difficult with an analogue flaw detector where only a
single A-scan display is available.
Shear or mode converted shear signals
After the compression back wall signal a much large signal generally appears and is a
back wall shear reflected signal and it is often mistaken for the compression back wall
signal. Between these signals other signals are generally observed due to mode
conversion at a defect into shear waves which then takes a longer time for the signal to
arrive at the receiver.

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It is often very useful to collect signals in this region since genuine defect signals are
repeated at longer times and near surface defect signals may be clearer since they are
spread out in time more for the shear waves.
Ray Paths
The ray paths depicted in Figure 3.6 are simply those that happen to connect the probes
and crack tips. They do not represent special angles at which diffraction only occurs.
Diffraction can occur at all angles and those rays in the beam spread which happen to hit
the tips will be diffracted and hit the receiver.
3.3.3.3 Phase Relationships

An A-scan is reproduced in Figure 3.7 and contains the lateral wave and back wall
signals. When a wave in a medium with a higher acoustic impedance is reflected at the
interface to a lower acoustic impedance there is a phase change of 180 degrees (e. g. steel
to water or steel to air) This means that if the waveform starts with a positive cycle
before it hits the wall it will start with a negative cycle after reflection from the wall.
Figure 3.7 A-scan with no Defect Present
When a defect is present the situation shown in figure 3.8 occurs. The signal from the top
of the defect acts as if it had undergone a reflection from a backwall and has a phase
change of 180 degrees, i.e. the phase is like a backwall and starts with a negative cycle.
The bottom of a defect, however, acts as if the wave runs round the bottom without a
phase change and the phase of the signal is like the lateral wave, i.e. it starts with a
positive cycle. Theory shows that if two diffraction signals have opposite phase they must
have a continuous crack between them. Theory also shows that in a few cases the top and

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bottom diffraction signals may not have a phase change of 180 degrees, but in general
they will. Thus the recognition of phase change is very important for characterising
signals and for making the most accurate defect sizing. For example two signals may be
present which are from two slag lines rather than a single crack. In this case there will not
be a phase change. Slag lines and pores are generally to thin to produce separate top and
bottom signals.
Because the number of observed cycles in a signal very much depends on the amplitude
of the signals it is often difficult to recognise the phase. This is especially true for the
backwall which is generally saturated. In these situations it is important to sit the probes
on the sample being examined or a calibration block and turn the gain down so that the
backwall or any other difficult signal has the same screen height as the defect signals and
then increase the gain making a note of how the signal grows with respect to the order of
the phases. It is sometimes easiest to concentrate on the two or three most predominant
cycles.
It is because the phase information is important that it is necessary to collect the TOFD
unrectified signals digitally.
Figure 3.8 A-scan with Defect Present

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3.3.3.4 Depth Calculation

The depth of a reflector is calculated from the arrival time of the pulse by simple
trigonometry. There is no recourse to measurement of amplitude. The positioning of the
tip signals then provides information on the actual flaw sizes and height estimates below
the scanned surface and through wall size.
For a reflector situated symmetrically beneath the probes, as shown in Figure 3.9 the
distance travelled in millimetres between the probes is,
distance = 2(s2 + d2)1/2
where s = half the probe centre separation (PCS) 2s, mm
d = depth of reflector, mm
( )1/2 means square root of the number in the brackets.
Hence the time, t, taken in microseconds is
t = 2(s2 + d2)1/2/c
where c = velocity of sound in units of mm/µs.
Figure 3.9 Basic TOFD parameters

Thus by rearrangement of the above equation the depth can be expressed as a function of
the measured time,
d = [(ct/2)2 - s2]1/2
Assumption - the above is the formula used to calculate depth for an observed signal and
it always assumes that the flaw tip is symmetrically located between the two probes.
Very often the reflector will not be symmetrically positioned beneath the probes and there
will be an error in the calculation of depth (for non-parallel scans along the weld). This is
discussed in more detail in the Chapter on Errors and Appendix 1, and a method is
described in Appendix 2 for improving the determination of depth for a non-parallel scan
utilising the additional information in the mode converted diffraction signal. In most
situations, however, with a single “V” weld the additional depth error due to the off-axis

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location is small. Also when determining flaw height from top and bottom tip
diffraction’s the off-axis error will tend to cancel. The off-axis error does not apply in the
case of parallel scans across the weld.
The typical size of the error for depth measurements is + or - 1 mm (see Chapter on
Errors), but when used in repeat inspections for crack growth monitoring using the same
probe array and equipment the error is reduced to typically + or - 0.3 mm.
Because of the pitch-catch probe arrangement the relationship between depth and time is
not linear and has can be seen from the above equation it has a quadratic form. Software
should be available to convert the collected B- or D-scan into a linear depth scale by a
process known as linearisation. This then provides a B- or D-scan linear with depth and
this may be more useful to plot for a report. Very often when analysing the data it is
preferable to work from the raw collected data with the data plotted on the time axis.
Because the paths to reflectors near to the surface are almost horizontal a small change in
time represents a large change in depth. Thus, conversion to a linear depth scale tends to
spread out the near surface signals and the lateral wave appears out of proportion. An
alternative method for depth measurements is to use a cursor on the raw data and read out
depth at the position of the cursor.
The other effect of this non-linear depth scale, has will be shown in the Chapter on Errors,
is that the error on the depth measurement increases rapidly near the top surface. Thus
because of the presence of the lateral wave and the increasing depth error TOFD is
not so useful for inspecting the near surface region for internal flaws, typically the
first 10 mm when only one scan is used. However, by reducing the PCS and maybe
using a higher frequency then more of the near surface region can be directly inspected,
but with some reduction in the volume of coverage. For example, by using higher
frequency probes ( ~ 15 MHz) and a small PCS, thin samples can be inspected to within a
millimetre or so of the surface.
3.3.3.5 Measurement of Time and initial Probe-Centre-Separation

Depth Calibration
In practise the depth calculation needs to take into account the extra delay in the measured
time due to the passage of the sound through the probe shoes. This delay is known as the
probe delay2to microseconds. Thus the total transit time measured, t, is in practise given
by
t = 2(s2 + d2)1/2/c + 2to
and the depth is given by
d = [(c/2)2(t-2to)2 - s2]1/2
Thus it would appear that to calculate the depth for a reflector with a transit time of t µs
that a knowledge of the ultrasonic velocity, probe delay and probe centre separation is
required. However, it will be shown in the Chapter on Errors that a more accurate
calculation of the depth can be made if the velocity and probe delay are found from the
measurement of the positions of the lateral wave and back wall signals. This procedure
helps to reduce any systematic errors such as errors in the PCS.
The lateral wave signal occurs at a time, tl µs, and is given by
tl = 2s/c + 2to

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and the back wall at a time, tb µs, and is given by

tb = 2(s2 + D2)1/2/c + 2to
where D thickness of the sample.
By rearranging the two equation the probe delay and velocity can be found if the PCS =
2s, and the thickness D is known, i.e.
c = 2(s2 + D2)1/2 - 2s
(tb - tl)
and 2to = tb - 2(s2 + D2)1/2/c
Thus the recommended method of measuring depth is to measure the PCS and the
thickness of the sample and enter the values into the file header before starting a scan.
Then to measure a depth in a B- or D-scan, if the relevant software is available, first
measure the position of the lateral and back wall signals and let the computer
automatically calculate the probe delay and velocity. Then at each cursor position in the
image the depth can be calculated. Obviously if there is no lateral or back wall signal then
only one signal can be used for calibration and either the velocity or probe delay must
also be input to the program.
The PCS is measured between the index points of the two probes.
Measurement of time of arrival of various signal

Because of the phase changes in the various signals care must be taken in when choosing
the position for measuring the time of arrival of the various signals in order to obtain the
most accurate depth estimates. The prime requirement is to be consistent in the various
measurements. One could choose to measure to the peak signal, but since the back wall
signal is often saturated this is more difficult. One suggestion is to measure the time at a
crossover point when the cycle changes from positive to negative. This is quite easy if
there is a readout of time and amplitude as a cursor is moved about the B- or D-scan,
since the reading should change at the cross over point from negative to positive or vice
versa. The sample nearest point nearest to an amplitude of zero should be chosen.
A possible set of positions are shown in Figure 3.10. If the lateral wave starts with say a
positive cycle take the reading at the start of the cycle. The equivalent time at the back
wall signal will then be, because of the phase change, the start of the first negative cycle.
However, in the example shown the start of the second negative cycle has been chosen
because the amplitude is much greater and there are more cycles. The second negative
cycle is deemed in this case to be the equivalent cycle to that used for the lateral wave.
For the tip diffraction signals the start of the first negative signal is chosen for the top of
the crack and the first positive signal for the bottom of the crack.

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Figure 3.10 Consistent measurement of time of various signals
Initial choice of PCS for an Inspection

For a new inspection the best choice of PCS for a single non-parallel scan is such that the
ultrasonic beam centres are aimed at two thirds of the depth of the sample. This will then
in general give coverage of the majority of the weld. If the beam centre angle in the metal
is θ, then in general
tanθ =s/depth
and at two thirds the depth the PCS, 2s = (4/3)Dtanθ
where D is the thickness of the sample. It will be shown will be seen in a later Chapter
that when aiming at a specific depth, d, e.g. for a parallel scan that the PCS is given by,
2s = 2dtanθ
Check collecting correct part of A-scan
Since the lateral wave is often very weak and there is a very strong shear wave back wall
signal beyond the compression back wall signal it is easy to take the later for the lateral
wave and the shear wave signal for the back wall signal. Always check that the observed
signals correspond to the calculated times of arrival of the lateral wave and back wall
signal, i.e.
lateral wave tl = 2s/c + 2to
and back wall tb = 2(s2 + D2)1/2/c + 2to
3.3.3.6 Patterns for Surface breaking Defects

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For surface breaking cracks the expected TOFD B- or D-scan will be modified. Thus if
the defect breaks the upper surface the lateral wave will normally be eliminated ( as
shown in Figure 3.11) or very much reduced in amplitude. If the defect is not very long
then the lateral wave may partially get round the side of the defect.
Figure 3.11 Surface opening crack in a non-parallel scan

For cracks open to the back wall the resultant D-scan is shown in Figure 3.12. The effect
on the back wall depends on the height of the crack and the volume of coverage of the
probe set up.
For cracks with small penetration into the metal the diffraction signal should be seen just
above the back wall with normally no change in the appearance of the back wall signal.
This is because the majority of the ultrasonic beam still gets past the crack. If the crack
penetrates in somewhat further the back wall signal may lose some amplitude and have a
dip due to the longer path for sound at the edge of the beam still being reflected from the
back wall and getting to the receiver. Finally, if the crack penetrates sufficiently far the
back wall signal will be cut off.
During scanning it very easy to lose good contact with the surface and hence lose the
signals. Loss of couplant removes the signals from the A-scan (lateral and back wall)
and should not be confused with loss of part of the signal. Loss of the lateral wave but
with the backwall still present indicates a surface opening crack and similarly loss of back
wall but with lateral wave still present indicates a rear surface opening crack.

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Figure 3.12 Surface opening cracks on the back wall for a non-parallel scan
3.4 Types of TOFD Scan
There are two types of scan. The initial scan generally used for detection is shown in
Figure 3.13 and is called the non-parallel or longitudinal scan because the direction of
scan is at right angles to the direction of the ultrasonic beam. The resultant scan is known
as a D-scan since it produces a cross section along the weld. This type of scan is usually
set up with as wide a beam spread as possible to inspect as large a volume as possible
with one scan. Since the probes straddle the weld the weld cap does not interfere with the
scan. It is a very economical inspection and is the scan most frequently carried out and
often the only one.
The second type of scan is shown in Figure 3.14 and is called the transverse or parallel
scan. The direction of scan is parallel to the ultrasonic beam direction. The scan produced
is called a B-scan since it produces a cross section across the weld. In this case if there is
a wide weld cap it is difficult to carry out the scan and only a limited movement may be
possible. This type of scan gives the most accurate measurement of depth and should be
optimised for this purpose.

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Figure 3.13 Non-Parallel or Longitudinal Scan
Figure 3.14 Parallel or Transverse Scan
The importance of the parallel scan is illustrated in Figure 3.15. In the figure a lack-of-
fusion defect with constant height and length in the plane of the weld is assumed. The
non-parallel scan will give a parallel set of diffraction signal extending over the length of
the defect with characteristic shaped arcs at the ends where the path length is longer as the
probes approach and leave the defect. However, there is no knowledge to be gained from
the D-scan of the location of the reflectors in the cross sectional plane across the weld.
The defects could be from any position in the beam coverage of the probes. This is
illustrated in Figure 3.16.

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Figure 3.15 Difference between a non-parallel and a parallel scan
Figure 3.16 Uncertainty in lateral position in a non-parallel scan

In Figure 3.16 a signal with a certain transit time could be anywhere on the locus of an
ellipse with the two probe positions as the focal points This means that the reflectors may
not be symmetrically situated beneath the probes and hence the depth calculation will not
be
the most accurate. The error is in general very small because due to the limitations of
beam spread the variation in depth is over the almost horizontal part of the ellipse.
With the parallel scan, provided a complete scan is obtained, the probes traverse over the
defect and at some point the reflectors are symmetrically positioned beneath the probes,
thus giving the most accurate depth. This is shown in the figure by the characteristic arcs
produced by this type of scan. As the probes approach the reflectors the signal starts and

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rises as the path length shortens until the minimum is reached when the reflector is
symmetrically beneath the two probes. The peak position corresponds to this minimum
time.
This peak position also gives the location of the reflector in the weld cross section and the
relative position of a crack top and bottom signal gives an indication of the crack
orientation. If the scan is carried out with an encoder and the start position is known with
respect to the weld centre line, then it should be possible to locate the position in the weld
cross section to within one or two millimetres. This is very important since the location of
the defect will help to provide a clue for the characterisation of the defect. To obtain good
results, however it may be necessary to use a smaller PCS and narrower beam width in
order to obtain a sharp peak.
In many instances, because of the need to complete the inspection quickly or because of
financial constraints, inspections are only carried with the non-parallel scan. However, in
order to make a reasonable guess as to the type of defect and to get the best sizing
accuracy parallel scans should be carried out over all the signals of interest found in the
non-parallel scans. If the defect is long then parallel scans should be carried out at
different positions along its length.
3.5 Main Uses Of TOFD
The main uses of the TOFD technique are,

a) for accurate flaw sizing, TOFD is one of the most accurate techniques
especially for internal defects.
b) For screening and sizing. Since TOFD can detect all the flaws in the beam
coverage irrespective of orientation it has a high probability of detection . The
fact that inspection data is collected in B- or D-scan form also improves the
detection of cracks in the presence of signals from geometric features such as
mismatch and weld defects such as excess penetration or undercut. Most welds
can be rapidly screened by TOFD and demonstrated that they are free of
significant flaws.
c) Change monitoring. TOFD is one of the most accurate methods available for
measuring the growth of flaws.
The development of acceptance codes for TOFD has been slow. However, with the
development of Inspection Standards (British and European) acceptance codes have been
proposed. An example of an acceptance code is given in Chapter 7.
3.6 Summary of Advantages and Disadvantages of TOFD

TOFD is a most powerful technique, not only for accurate depth sizing of defects but also
for detection in routine inspections. However, its lack of adequate acceptance criteria still
prohibits its use in some inspections. Various evaluation projects have demonstrated that
the technique combines a high probability of detection (POD) with a low false call rate
(FCR). In addition the simplicity of its scanning concept enables application on many
different components, including complex geometry.
Procedures and criteria for the acceptance/ rejection of weld defects are essential for NDT
and hence the importance of codes and standards for industry. Any new technique
presents problems of initial acceptance since acceptance criteria often tend to be based on

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“known practise” (e.g. radiography). Thus it is very important to develop criteria for
TOFD which are compatible with its unique ability, i.e. mapping the the position of the
edges of defects.
Like any other technique TOFD has its limitations (see below for advantages and
disadvantages). In general the technique is less suited to coarse grained materials and
inspection reliability close the scanning surface is hampered by the presence of the lateral
wave.
Advantages
The two most important differences of TOFD from conventional pulse-echo are,
i) the almost independence of angle of the defect for detection of the diffraction
signals
ii) the depth sizing is not dependent on the amplitude of the signals and the
corresponding errors
Thus the main advantages of TOFD are,
a) TOFD has a through wall sizing accuracy of + or - 1 mm and a crack growth
monitoring capability of + or- 0.3 mm
b) efficient detection of defects of all orientations
c) permanent digital record of the inspection data with cross-section type views
through the metal.
Disadvantages
The amplitude of the diffraction signals does not depend on the size of the defects and a
simple amplitude threshold cannot be applied for selecting the important reportable
defects, unlike pulse-echo inspections. TOFD easily detects pores, slag lines, inclusions
etc.
The main disadvantages of TOFD are,
a) no simple amplitude threshold for selecting reportable defects
b) all the TOFD inspection data has to be visually analysed in order to select the
reportable defects
c) not so suitable for defects near to the inspection surface since they may be
hidden by the lateral wave and the sizing accuracy deteriorates rapidly near to
the inspection surface.
Other Points
TOFD is no more accurate in estimating flaw length than standard pulse-echo techniques,
although by using various software algorithms (e.g. SAFT) the accuracy can be improved.
Since a considerable operator effort is involved in the analysis of the TOFD data
experience and training are essential.
TOFD should be regarded as just another tool in the field of ultrasonic inspection and
sometimes it is more appropriate than pulse-echo and sometimes not. Very often a
combination of the two techniques is the best solution since the additional information is
often vital for defect characterisation.
As a consequence of the efficiency of detecting flaws, irrespective of their orientation,
TOFD scans see all the flaws within the beam coverage. This can be initially rather
worrying, but it must be remembered that most of the flaws have been present since the
weld was fabricated and many of the smaller (volumetric) indications are generally not
important. Thus when it is known that a plant will have to be regularly inspected and

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especially when flaw growth monitoring will be important it is strongly recommended

that the plant operators are persuaded to carry out a ‘base line’ or ‘fingerprinting’ ‘
inspection. Such an inspection should be carried out as early as possible in the life of the
plant. This will enable the cracks which develop in service to be more reliably recognised
and monitored.
3.7 Basic Steps in the Sizing or Detection of Flaws
The basic steps to be used in an inspection for the collection and analysis of TOFD data
are,
a) Write/develop a procedure, a layout is suggested in Chapter 11.
b) Choose probe parameters, probe separation and basic A-scan parameters,
described in Chapter 5.
c) Set-up data collection system and collect B- or D-scan data files, described in
Chapter 4, while equipment and probe calibration techniques are described in
Chapter 12.
d) Analyse data for flaw size. The basic method of depth sizing is by using a
shaped cursor, which represents the response from a point source (Chapter 8).
The cursor is calibrated from the position of the lateral and backwall signals
(Chapter 6) and the sizing errors are derived in Chapter 6. The determination of
the lateral extent of the flaws is also described in Chapter 6. The problems in
complex geometry are briefly described in Chapter 9
e) Analyse data for flaw characterisation - Chapter 7. Various software
algorithms for aiding the interpretation are described in Chapter 8.
f) Write inspection report, a layout is suggested in Chapter 10.

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4. DATA COLLECTION SYSTEM
4.1 Basic Hardware
Most ultrasonic inspections are carried out by manually scanning with angled shear
wave or compression probes using an analogue flaw detector. There is only generally
facilities for one probe to be used at a time. With an analogue flaw detector the
operator views the A-scan display and notes in a report sheet any indications seen,
there location and size. There is no record kept of the observed ultrasonic signals
and no permanent evidence of the coverage undertaken.
Since about 1990 these analogue systems have tended to become computer
controlled, with facilities like storage of DAC curves and set-up parameters, which
make the flaw detector easier to use. However, a small percentage of inspections
have had to be mechanised and handle arrays of probes for reasons of speed (steel
mill), safety (nuclear plant) or environment (under the sea). For these inspections
very sophisticated digital systems have been developed for handling arrays of probes,
controlling mechanised scanners and recording all the inspection data for
subsequent analysis and providing a record. They generally handle arrays of probes
by rapidly multiplexing around the probes and thus in practise only amplify and
record the signals from one probe at a time. For inspections of large volumes of
metal at high speed these
Chapter 4 Data collection system. Page 31

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Figure 4.1 Typical Digital System for collecting TOFD Data
systems tend to record just the range and peak height of any signals which exceed a
defined threshold level within a range gate. However, for TOFD inspections these
systems need to record the full unrectified A-scan at each inspection position or
sufficient information to be able to reconstruct the A-scan. In this mode the firing
rate (pulse repetition frequency) of the probes is much less than when just recording
peak height since a lot more data has to be stored on the hard disk.
A typical system for collecting TOFD data is shown in figure 4.1.
The digital systems consist of, like the analogue flaw detectors, electrical circuits for
transmitting a firing pulse to the transmitting probe and amplifying and filtering the
received signal. The main difference from the flaw detectors is that there are a
number of output transmitter/receiver channels which are selected under computer
control in sequence by the multiplexer. The computer normally multiplexes at each
inspection point around those channels which have been defined in the inspection
set-up. In the TOFD configuration separate transmitter and receiver channels are
defined for each pair of TOFD probes used in the inspection.
Because the computer environment is often electrically noisy and there may be
external electrical noise it is usual to restrict the frequency bandpass of the amplifier
by means of filters to the spectrum of frequencies appropriate to the ultrasonic
probes being used. While this may reduce the overall amplitude it should improve
the signal-to-noise ratio of the amplified signals. Filtering is especially useful for
TOFD signals which are normally very weak and may require gains of about 70 dB.
If the TOFD signals are very weak or the probes are situated some distance from the
recording system (e.g. 100 m) then it is a good idea to use a separate head amplifier
in the receiving line, as near to the receiver probe as possible. Numerous battery
operated head amplifiers are available with gains of the order of 30 or 40 dB. The
battery operated amplifiers have the advantage that they are not connected to the
same mains supply as the main collection system and are therefor less subject to
electrical noise.
The resultant amplified and filtered analogue signals are then converted into a string
of digital numbers and stored in the computer memory by means of the digitiser.
The computer has attached to it the normal range of peripherals such as keyboard,
monitor, mouse, memory, floppy disk, etc. Additional devices such as printers and
optical disks can be connected to the normal communication ports. The systems
generally have provision for a motor control/encoder card for automatically
controlling a mechanised inspection system or for at least measuring probe position
by means of the encoder input facility. Several different axes of motion can be
catered for.
4.2 Advantage of Digital Recording
There are many advantages for the use of computer based systems for the digital
recording of ultrasonic data. The TOFD technique requires the full unrectified A-

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scans to be stored at each inspection point along a scan. Some of the advantages of
digital storage are,
i) A permanent digital record of all collected data, inspection parameters
used, and calibration runs - i.e. complete record of the inspection.
ii) Various signal processing operations can be carried out on the collected
data allowing signal enhancement, etc. to be carried out (off-line
processing).
iii) Inspection results can be compared in detail in subsequent inspections,
(e.g. growth monitoring).
iv) Re-analysis of the raw inspection data can be carried out at any time.
v) A variety of visualisation displays can be used for data analysis and
presentation of results.
vi) Allows integration of the Data Acquisition System and the manipulator
controller.
vii) Allows multi-channel pulse-echo and TOFD data acquisition and direct
comparison or overlay of the results.
For quality control the complete record of the inspection offered by digital systems is
a major advantage over the old analogue flaw detectors.
4.3 Digitisation of the Analogue Ultrasonic Signals
4.3.1 Amplitude
The pulsing of the probes and the subsequent amplification and filtering are carried
out in analogue form. The great advantage of analogue systems is the speed with
operations can be carried out, i.e. firing rate of an array of probes and subsequent
peak-height detection. However, digitisation of the analogue signals, in spite of its
consequent reduction in speed due to the need to store all the data in the computer
memory, does as explained in the last section have a number of major advantages
and is essential for the subsequent analysis of TOFD data.
The conversion of the analogue A-scan into a string of numbers is known as
digitisation and consists of sampling the analogue wave form at a regular sampling
interval, as shown in the figure,

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Figure 4.2 Digitisation of an A-scan
The amplitude of each stored sample along with position and phase information
(sign) is passed to the computer for storage. Therefor the information stored in the
computer is a string of numbers representing the A-scan which can be recalled to
reconstruct the A-scan for an A-scan display or by stacking together consecutive A-
scans a B-scan can be reconstructed.
The basic storage location of a computer is one bit which can be in one of two states
and can be used to represent the numbers 0 or 1. In ultrasonic systems a collection of
8 bits (one byte) has frequently been used to represent the amplitude of one sample,
however, some systems are now using 10 or 12 bits to represent the amplitude. In
the table below the corresponding range of numbers represented by 8,10 or 12 bits is
given for rectified and unrectified A-scan signals. For unrectified signals (TOFD)
the sign of the amplitude needs to be preserved and thus the number representing
the maximum amplitude is effectively half that for rectified data. Also in the table is
given the maximum range in decibels (i.e. dB = 20log10(A1/A2), where A is
amplitude) represented by one half cycle of the unrectified signals.
bits number Range of range of range in dB for

representatio numbers for numbers for unrectified data
n rectified data unrectified
data
8 28 0 to 255 -128 to +127 20log10(127/1) = 42
10 210 0 to 1023 -512 to +511 20log10(511/1) = 54
12 212 0 to 4095 -2048 to 20log10(2047/1) =
+2047 66
The digitiser operates between two specific voltage levels for the input signals (e.g. 0
to 1 volt or -0.5 to +0.5 volts). Thus any unrectified analogue signal outside these
limits will be saturated and stored as + or - 100% full screen height (FSH). For
example for the 8 bit digitiser these saturated values will be stored as 127 or - 128.
For the unrectified data the range in dB represented by the maximum amplitude of

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one half cycle is only 42 dB for the 8 bit digitiser (i.e. from 100% FSH down to a
level of 1 unit). If the noise level is 2%, say, the effective range for the 8 bit digitiser
for a linear amplifier is reduced to 34 dB (20log10(127/2.54).
Since the gain of the main amplifier is typically of the order of 80 dB then the
digitiser can only represent a limited fraction of the total gain range available. This
is not normally a problem for TOFD data since, because of the limits imposed by
beam spread, only a limited volume of metal is viewed by a pair of TOFD probes.
The more bits used to represent amplitude by the digitiser the less this is a problem.
If there is a problem then there are usually a number of options, i.e.
i) define a second pair of channels connected to the same probes but with a
different overall gain and collect data from both sets of channels
ii) use a DAC curve
iii) use a logarithmic amplifier
4.3.2 Sampling Rate
Most of the digital ultrasonic systems can store up to 4096 or 8192 samples per A-
scan, which is quite adequate for TOFD data. If the digitisation rate is F MHz then
the interval between digitisation samples is S microseconds (µs),
where S = 1/F.
Hence the number of samples in an A-scan length of t µs is,
number of samples = t/S or t*F.
For a typical TOFD A-scan the time between the lateral wave and backwall is 10 µs
and with a digitisation frequency of typically 50 MHz the number of samples is 500.
This is well within the total available. Consider a typical probe frequency of 5 MHz
and a digitisation rate of 25 MHz. The A-scan waveform is sampled every 1/25 =
0.04µs and within one period of a reflected signal (1/5 = 0.2µs) there will be 5
samples. This situation is illustrated in figure 4.3.
The digitiser is working at the selected sampling rate and the A-scan comes along
and is sampled. The position of any peak in an ultrasonic signal is thus arbitrary with
respect to the sampling points. Thus for a sample to occur exactly at the peak
position of a positive or negative half cycle is a matter of chance and on average the
peak amplitude will not be measured. The greater the digitisation frequency the
greater the chance that one of the samples will occur at or very near the peak.
However, the higher the sampling rate the greater amount of data which must be
stored in the computer to represent the A-scan. Thus

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Figure 4.3 Digitisation with 5 samples per period
a compromise has to be reached. To obtain a reasonable estimate (within 10% on

average) of the peak amplitude at least 5 samples per period of the signal are
required. The measurement of peak amplitude is not of great importance for TOFD
data since the depth of a signal is derived from the time of arrival of the signal and
not on its amplitude. However, for accurate depth measurements it is necessary to
measure time accurately which means having sufficient number of sampling points.
Thus for typical TOFD probe frequencies of 2, 5 10 and 15 MHz digitisation rates of
at least 10, 25, 50 and 75 MHz should be used. Most digital ultrasonic systems
nowadays have maximum digitisation rates in excess of 60 MHz and a choice of
several subdivisions of the maximum value.
For normal pulse-echo signals, since any sizing estimates depend on the
measurement of the maximum signal amplitude, the choice of correct digitisation
rate is very important. However, the situation is eased for pulse-echo since
rectification, in effect, halves the frequency and the use of smoothing circuits means
that the effective frequency content of the signals is lower than the normal probe
frequency.
So far we have considered the maximum digitisation frequency required, but we
must also consider the minimum which can be used. In order to represent the
frequency content of the
digitised signals in the computer the analogue wave forms must be digitised with a
digitising frequency of at twice the maximum frequency in the wave form, i.e. there
must be at least one sampling point in each half cycle of the wave. This is known as
the Nyquist limit. This limitation is illustrated in the figures below.
The upper part of figure 4.4 illustrates the sampling of a 10 MHz sin wave with a 20
MHz digitisation frequency. There is one sample point per half cycle of the

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waveform. The bottom part of the figure is the representation of the signal in the
computer and with this digitisation rate there is sufficient information for the
computer to recognise that the frequency of the signal is still 10 MHz. On average
the peak amplitude representation would be very poor.
Figure 4.4 Sampling a 10 MHz sin wave with a 20 MHz digitiser
The next figure (4.5) illustrates what happens when the 10 MHz sin wave is sampled
with a digitisation frequency of less than twice the 10 MHz frequency. The
digitisation frequency is 15 MHz and there is insufficient sample points to have a
sample in all the half cycles
(see upper part of figure). The bottom part of the figure shows the effect when the
resultant sample points are reconstructed. The apparent frequency of the waveform
is now less than 10 MHz and the correct frequency cannot be reconstructed. In
addition if any further digital signal processing (e.g. filtering) was carried on the data
stored in the computer incorrect results would be obtained.

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Figure 4.5 Sampling a 10 MHz sin wave with a 15 MHz digitiser

Thus when digitising unrectified ultrasonic signals a digitisation rate of at least twice
the maximum frequency content of the signals should be used and ideally the
digitisation rate should be at least 5 times the maximum frequency.
4.4 Selection of frequencies for filtering
In the description of the basic hardware at the beginning of this chapter it was
explained that the filtering frequencies should be chosen to allow a pass band for the
spectrum of frequencies, appropriate to the ultrasonic probes being used, in order to
provide the best signal-to-noise ratio. In some circumstances, such as dirty metal or
in a noisy environment it may be necessary to be even more restrictive. This is best
accomplished by observing a signal from a known reflector in the noise and choosing
which filters give the best results.
There is usually a choice of high and low pass filter frequencies. The high pass filter
passes all frequencies above the chosen value and the low pass filter passes all
frequencies below its chosen value. For example a 5MHz probe may have a
frequency spectrum from about 2MHz to 6.5MHz and it would be appropriate to
choose a high pass filter of about 1.5MHz and a low pass filter of about 7.5MHz.
The minimum recommended range of the receiver bandwidth is between 0.5 and 2
times the nominal probe frequency, unless, because of noise or attenuation, the
specific material under inspection requires otherwise.
When working with high frequency probes it may be necessary to restrict the choice
of the low pass filter in order to meet the Nyquist sampling limit described in the last
section. For example, assume that 15MHz probes with a frequency spectrum
between 10MHz and 18MHz are being used for an inspection and the maximum

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digitisation frequency available is 32MHz. In order to prevent any signals with

frequencies greater than half the digitisation rate being sampled the low pass filter
should be set at 16MHz.
4.5 Amount of data collected during an inspection
When collecting TOFD data it is very easy to collect large amounts of data which
may fill the hard disk and provide a problem of storing the data. Fortunately the
advent of optical disks has largely overcome the latter problem. Backups of the
inspection data should be taken at the end of each day and where data is required to
be kept for some time two copies should be made and the copies stored in separate
locations.
The following example shows how to work out the storage requirements for a system
which uses an 8 bit digitiser and stores the full unrectified A-scans. For systems
which use a different number of bits to store the amplitudes or uses some
compression technique to represent the A-scan data the method and format of
packing the data must be known before an equivalent exercise can be carried out.
Consider an example where for a TOFD probe pair it is required to digitise a length
of A-scan of 10µs and an A-scan is collected every millimetre along a weld and the
total length of weld is 10m. If the digitisation frequency is 50MHz then each A-scan
will be represented by 10*50 = 500 samples and it will require 500 bytes of storage
space. Thus over the total length of weld there will be a need for 500*10,000 =
5,000,000 bytes or 5Mbytes of storage for a TOFD probe pair.
Each individual file containing the A-scans over a certain inspection length is slightly
longer than indicated above since it also has a file header containing information on
the various parameters used for the inspection. It is often useful if each separate
scan file does not exceed 1.44Mbytes since then it can be easily transferred by floppy
disk.
4.6 Grey scale imaging and B-scans
The A-scan displays on the monitor screen are produced from the digital sample
points. Thus a single A-scan is plotted as a series of points representing the digitised
samples. If the A-scan is plotted horizontally across the screen then the vertical scale
will represent amplitude (+ and - 100% full screen height, i.e. the maximum voltage
range which can be input into the digitiser) and the horizontal will represent time
from the start of the firing or transmitter pulse. By joining the individual plotted
points (e.g. with straight lines) the appearance of a normal analogue A-scan display
is given. Cursors are generally available for taking amplitude and time
measurements from the displayed A-scan.
With TOFD data the succession of A-scans collected along a scan are displayed as a
B- or D- scan. B-scan generally means a scan across the weld and D-scan a scan
along the weld. Both have the same appearance and are made up of a succession of

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A-scans and for the following description the general term B-scan will be used.
Because the TOFD diffraction signals are very weak they may not be easily seen on
an individual A-scan but in the B-scan display they are generally easily recognisable
since the eye is very efficient at picking out patterns in the data.
Since the B-scan may contain several hundred separate A-scans and the monitor
screen only contains, for example, some 640 by 480 individual plotting points (known
as pixels) it is impossible to plot the individual A-scans in the manner described at
the start of this section. Instead each individual A-scan is allocated a single column
of pixels down the screen (i.e. the time scale) with each pixel representing an
individual digitised sample and the amplitude scale is represented by the grey scale
shading given to each individual pixel. Colour could be used for the amplitude
representation but it is generally found that it is much easier for the brain to
automatically understand and interpret grey scale coding rather than a colour scale.
In grey scale coding the range of amplitudes is generally represented by a scale which
goes from pure white for a +100% FSH signal through mid grey at 0% to pure
black at -100% FSH (see figure 4.6).
+100% 0% -100%
Figure 4.6 Grey scale representation of the amplitude
Different digital systems may have a reverse scale going from black to white but the
choice is not important. The total number of shades available will vary with
different digital systems but typically the number may be 64 grey levels. For an 8-bit
digitiser +100% is represented by the number 127 and -100% by the number -128.
Thus a typical ultrasonic signal from a reflector will consist of series of bands of
shading alternatively of light grey and dark grey colouring. The number of bands
represent the number of half cycles present in the signal and their width represents
the number of sample points per half cycle. The appearance of a signal in a
succession of A-scans displayed as a B-scan is shown in figure 4.7.
Contrast enhancement is normally available to enhance the low amplitude signals.
There are various algorithms for doing this but the simplest is to consider a linear
amplitude scale from -100% to +100% FSH. Contrast enhancement is obtained by
stretching the grey scale going from black to white over a smaller range of the
amplitude scale. For example if the

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Figure 4.7 Appearance of a signal in a B-scan which occurs in a succession of

A-scans
full grey scale is applied to -50% to +50% FSH then weaker signals will be more
easily seen. Every sample with amplitude above +50% FSH will be shown as pure
white and every one below -50% FSH will be shown as pure black.
The number of samples in an A-scan or the number of A-scans in the file being
plotted on the monitor may be larger than the number of pixels available. In order to
plot the complete image some of the A-scans may have to be omitted (e.g. every
other one) or some of the samples omitted ( in this situation the maximum
amplitude should be plotted regardless of any omitted samples). In general in these
circumstances the software will allow small areas to be selected and replotted with
all the data present or alternatively facilities may be available to scroll through the
data file without any loss of data for the area displayed. If the amount of data to be
plotted is less than the number of pixels available then the data can be expanded to
fill the screen by repeating the plot of a sample on successive pixels.
4.7 Signal Averaging
The TOFD diffracted signals from crack tips are very weak and need high levels of
amplification and hence are often difficult to see because of the noise in the signals.
Much of the noise is often due to random electrical signals which are picked up by
the system and hence this can be reduced by signal averaging. If N successive A-
scans are added together and the resultant sum divided by N then the signal-to-noise
ratio of a genuine signal over random noise is increased by the square root of N.
This is illustrated in figure 4.8, which shows in 5 successive A-scans a common signal
and a number of random noise signals. The effect of taking the average is shown at
the bottom of the figure. The consistent signal stays the same but the random noise
signals are reduced.

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Signal averaging can be accomplished most efficiently in the digitiser unit although it
is often done by software in the computer. Systems will generally allow averaging in
factors
Figure 4.8 Principle of Signal Averaging
of 2 up to 256. A typical value would be N=16 which would give a signal to noise
improvement of 4. If the signals are very noisy a factor of 256 may be necessary but
because of the square root effect the improvement is only 16. Thus increasing the
number of averages does not give a simple linear increase in the signal-to-noise.
The rate of pulsing or firing the transmitting probe is called the pulse-repetition-
frequency (prf) and it is generally set by the user for the inspection. If there are more
than one transmitting channel then because of multiplexing in turn around all the
transmitters the effective prf for a pair of probes is the specified prf divided by the
number of transmitting channels. Signal averaging also uses N of these firings to
obtain an averaged waveform. Thus for a single pair of TOFD probes if the number
of averages is N then the effective prf for the inspection is the set prf/N.
TOFD data is usually collected as the probes are moved but the movement during
the collection of an averaged waveform is small. For example if the prf is set at1000
Hz and the number of averages is 16 it will take 0.016 seconds to collect one
averaged waveform. If the scanning speed is, say, 50 mm/sec then the probes will
travel in this time 50*0.016 = 0.8 mm.
Signal averaging is very important for the collection of good quality diffraction
signals and is one of the reasons why adequate signals cannot usually be obtained
with a normal analogue flaw detector. However, signal averaging does not help when
the noise is coherent rather than random. This is the case for materials with large
grain structures such as austenitic steel when the additional scattering from the grain
boundaries is coherent and is not removed by simple time averaging.

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4.8 Pulse Width Control
An ultrasonic probe consists of a piezo-electric material which when set into

vibration with a voltage pulse produces a burst of ultrasound. The voltage pulse is
produced by a transducer driver which produces a rectangular pulse of up to 400
volts amplitude and with the width adjustable (usually between about 25 and 500
nanoseconds. The use of different voltages ranging from 100 to 400 volts is generally
dependent on the probe frequency and the type of crystal element.
The pulse width is important when using TOFD in that it helps to optimise the shape
of the received signal. The first edge of the rectangular pulse sets the crystal element
into oscillation, as shown in figure 4.9. The second edge of the rectangular pulse also
sets the crystal element into oscillation again but the phase of the burst of ultrasound
is 180 degrees out of phase (i.e. the order of the + and - half cycles) with the first set
of oscillations.
Figure 4.9 Effect of Drive Pulse on Transmitter Crystal Element
The two bursts of ultrasound generally overlap and interfere with one another.
Altering the pulse width causes cancellation or reinforcement of parts of the various
cycles. If the two bursts of ultrasound where composed of a single frequency and the
pulse width is set to one half of the period of this frequency (100 nanoseconds for 5
MHz) then as can be seen in figure 4.10 reinforcement takes place and a larger
signal is obtained, but it will ring for a longer time.
If the pulse width is set to 1 period of the wave frequency (200 ns for 5 MHz) then
after one period the two signals will be out of phase and a smaller amplitude signal
will be obtained, but the ringing will be reduced. This is a desirable feature for
TOFD applications since in order to resolve signals from the top and bottom tips of
small defects the signal should only last for a minimum number of cycles.
In practise a probe produces a range of frequencies and the optimum pulse width
must be found by trial. To do this obtain a signal from say the backwall at about 60%
FSH and adjust the pulse width starting at one period of the probe centre frequency.

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Sometimes, because of the range of frequencies present altering the pulse width as
little effect on the overall shape.
Figure 4.10 Illustration of Effect of altering Driver Pulse Width
4.9 Pulse Repetition Frequency
It will generally be necessary to set the pulse repetition frequency (prf) for the data
collection system. This is the rate of firing the transmitter probe. The prf is not the
same as the digitisation rate. The former controls how often the transmitter probe is
fired and the later the number of samples in a given length of A-scan. If signal
averaging is used then the it is generally the case that the effective prf (i.e. the
number of averaged A-scans collected per second) is the set prf divided by the
number of averages. In addition if multiplexing is carried out over a number of
TOFD probe pairs then the effective prf is obtained by further dividing by the
number of probe pairs.
If data is collected manually then the effective prf should be set to coincide with the
rate of moving the probes so that the A-scans are collected at intervals of
approximately 1 mm along the scan. Their is no information available to the
computer on position of the probes and hence it can only collect A-scan data at the
selected prf. If an encoder is attached to the scanner or the scanner is motorised
then the prf is not so important since the computer can work out the position of the
probes and only collect data at the specified A-scan sampling interval. If the
scanning speed is relatively fast then the prf may have to be set as high as possible in
order to ensure that no time is lost between arriving at the required sampling
position and a firing pulse being available, i.e. that there is sufficient time for the
data to be collected at the required scanning speed. Some data collection systems
will collect blank A-scans if there is not sufficient time at each sampling interval to
collect the data. The options to avoid this are,

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reduce the scanning speed

increase the prf
reduce the number of averages
reduce the length of the A-scan to be digitised
reduce the digitisation rate.
In certain circumstances, e.g. relatively small, regularly shaped, samples the sound
waves can be reflected around the sample and appear at the receiver at a time which
is after the next successive transmission pulse. This may give false signals and must
be avoided by reducing the prf appropriately. Such a situation is very rare for TOFD
inspections since the prf used is generally much lower than for example can be used
for pulse-echo inspections where only the peak heights in a range gate above some
threshold are recorded.
4.10 Software
4.10.1 On-line
The basic software for most commercial digital systems which can perform a TOFD
inspection are very similar. Generally they operate via a menu system with a main
menu first appearing and selection of one of the options leading to a further set of
more specific set of menus and so on. All the normal operations for handling files
(e.g. copying , deleting, renaming, etc.) should be available. The main on-line
facilities which should be present are
i) capture and display of the unrectified waveform
ii) facilities to set-up and alter all the ultrasonic and collection parameters
iii) enter all data pertinent to the inspection (e.g. weld number, clients name,
etc.) for automatic entry into the file header information with the
inspection parameters
iv) save all the relevant inspection parameters for retrieval at a later date
v) motor control/encoder interface
vi) collection of inspection scan
vii) display of the B- or D-scans and extraction and display of individual A-
scans
viii) display facilities such as scrolling, magnification of selected areas,
contrast enhancement and cursor facilities for sizing selected indications.

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4.10.2 Analysis and Of-line facilities
The facilities available will vary between the various digital ultrasonic systems
available. Below is given a fairly extensive list of facilities which have proved to be
useful. These are being added to all the time.
The analysis facilities are,
i) cursor representation of a point reflector for the determination of depth
and lateral extent
ii) linearisation (conversion of the inspection data to a depth scale)
iii) lateral or backwall straightening (to enable more accurate depth
measurements and before lateral wave removal)
iv) lateral wave removal (to reveal any underlying indications)
v) Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique or SAFT (used to clean up the
images and provide a more accurate method of measuring the lateral
extent of defects). In order to measure lateral extent 6 dB drop sizing
facilities are also required.
vi) digital filtering to remove noise or enhance signal-to-noise
vii) split spectrum processing (for improvement of signal-to-noise for
inspections carried out in materials with large grains)
viii) selection and storage of defect profiles and comparison (monitoring for
defect growth, display of root erosion defects)
ix) joining scans (e.g. when the inspection of a weld is broken down into a
number of separate scans)
x) addition of text and preparation of images for reports
There are two more categories of programs available although they are often written
more by individual companies or research establishments.
The first category is modelling which we may loosely divide into three sections
prediction - highly theoretical calculations of response from
reflectors
- calculation of beam path and effect in large grained
materials, e.g. austenitic
- probability of detection
complex geometry - calculation of optimum probe arrangement and
coverage for complex geometry situations, e. g. nozzles
aids to analysis - either calculation of what the B-scan will look like for
a defined geometry or calculation of where a specific
signal could have come from
- calculation of phase of signals
The second category of programs are generally fairly small specific programs which
we may term as useful aids. In this category some examples are,
calculation and plot of sizing errors as a function of depth
plot of beam spreads in simple geometry
calculation of location of mode converted and shear wave signals
corrections to be made when on convex or concave surfaces

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signal shapes from reflectors with various orientations.

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5. DESIGN OF TOFD INSPECTION
5.1 Precision and Resolution

Precision
Precision means the accuracy with which the time of arrival of a signal (peak or
crossover point) can be made (see Figure 5.1). The best that can be obtained is
about 0.1 of the
wavelength, which corresponds for a 5 MHz probe in steel to about 0.1 mm. This is
the best that TOFD could achieve for sizing. In practise this can not be achieved
because of various errors, for example the digitisation sampling rate of the
waveform.
Figure 5.1 Illustration of meaning of Precision and Resolution
Resolution
Resolution means the minimum separation of two signal before they can be correctly
identified (see Figure 5.1), e.g. the top and bottom tip diffraction signals from a
small crack. Resolution therefore sets a lower limit to the size of flaw for which top
and bottom echoes can detected. In general, because the signal wavetrain contains
several cycles corresponding to typically 2 or 3 wavelengths, this is the resolution
distance. For a 5 MHz probe this will correspond to 2 or 3 mm. Hence the top and
Chapter 5 TOFD inspection design. Page 45

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bottom echoes from slag lines and pores are not usually resolved. Resolution will be
improved by using higher frequency probes, but this will depend on the thickness of
metal and resultant attenuation. However, has will be seen later, one is generally
forced to lower frequencies because of beam spread considerations.
In general however probes should be selected such that the pulse length of the
lateral wave and backwall echo do not exceed two cycles measured at 10% of the
peak amplitude.
5.2 Beam Spread Considerations
5.2.1 Basics for calculation of beam spread

In a TOFD inspection for the initial scans the most important consideration is beam
spread since generally the aim is to inspect a large a volume of metal as possible
using as few scans as possible. Hence it is important to calculate the volume of
coverage. Hopefully, there will be software available for doing this (e.g. the AEA
Sonomatic TOFD “Aids” package - an example of a beam spread plot is given in
Appendix 5). A mathematical calculation of the beam spread is outlined below.
The ultrasonic beam half-angle from a disc crystal oscillator is defined as
sin γ = Fλ/D
where λ = wavelength of sound in medium
D = crystal diameter
F = factor depending on the choice of cut-off factor at the beam edge,
e. g. 6 dB F = 0.51 and for 20 dB F = 1.08
The beam from a transducer is outlined in Figure 5.2. The situation is complicated in
the probe near field but for the current calculations it is assumed that the region of
interest is beyond the near field and the above formula is adequate.
Figure 5.2 Definition of Beam Spread
In the Table below are given some typical wavelengths and beam spreads in the
TOFD probe shoe, where the velocity of sound in the plastic is say 2.4 mm/µs. A
value for the F factor of 0.7 has been used which gives a very conservative beam
spread.

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γ degrees
Frequency, MHz λ in shoe, mm D = 15 D = 10 D = 6 mm
mm mm
3 0.8 2.14 3.21 5.35
5 0.4 1.28 1.92 3.21
10 0.24 0.64 0.96 1.6
Table 5.1 Beam spreads in Probe shoe
The well known fact in ultrasonics that the widest beam spread is obtained for the,
lowest frequency
smallest crystal diameter
is illustrated in the Table.
In order to obtain longitudinal or compression waves into the metal at angles of
typically 45, 60 and 70 degrees a perspex/polystyrene wedge is attached to the
transducer face and cut at an appropriate angle. The angles of refraction at a
boundary between two different media are calculated using Snells law,
c1/c2 = sin θ1 / sin θ2
where c = velocity and θ = angles with respect to normal to surface and 1 and 2
refer to medium 1 and medium 2.
For example if a velocity of sound of 5.95 mm/µs is taken for steel and 2.4 mm/µs for
the shoe the following shoe angles are required,
Angle in shoe, degrees Angle in steel, degrees

16.57 45
20.44 60
22.27 70
Table 5.2 Angle of shoe corresponding to angle in steel
To calculate the beam spread in the metal the following steps are carried out,
i) for the chosen beam centre angle in the metal calculate the angle in the
probe shoe, θshoe
ii) calculate the beam spread, γ degrees, in the shoe
iii) work out the range of angles in the shoe, θshoe + γ and θshoe - γ
iv) use Snells law to work out the corresponding beam edge angles in the
metal for the two angles θshoe + γ and θshoe - γ in the shoe
The table below gives an example of the beam spreads for a beam centre angle of 60
degrees in the metal.

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Beam spread for centre angle of 60 degrees in

steel
Frequency, MHz D = 6 mm D= 10 mm D = 15 mm
3 40.2 - 90 47.3 - 84.0 51.1 - 72.2
5 47.3 - 84 51.9 - 70.6 54.5 - 66.5
10 3.2 - 68.5 55.8 - 64.8 57.1 - 63.1
Table 5.3 Beam spreads in steel for various probes for a beam centre angle of
60 degrees
In the table the largest beam spread is obtained with the 3 MHz, 6 mm diameter
crystal, and it is such that it spreads right up to the top surface (90 degrees).
Because of Snells law the beam spread is not symmetrical about the beam centre.
An increase in frequency or crystal diameter rapidly reduces the beam spread. The
effect is seen very dramatically in Figure 5.3 where the beam spread is plotted for a
pair of 60 degree probes aimed at two thirds the
depth of the sample.
While the first choice may be high frequency to give increased resolution and large
diameter to give higher beam intensity, it is very apparent that at least in the
detection phase of an inspection the overruling factor is volume of coverage which
leads to lower frequencies and small diameters. When defects have been located
then a more optimum set-up can be chosen for a further scan over the defect in
order to get the best sizing accuracy.

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Figure 5.3 Effective volume of coverage for two 60 degree probes aimed at 2/3T
It is also evident that not all the complete weld cross section can be always be
inspected with one scan configuration and this is considered in the next section.
5.2.2 Example of selection of number of scans for an inspection
The number of TOFD probe configuration required for a TOFD inspection very
much depends on the thickness of the metal to be inspected and the specified
volume of coverage required. Obviously it is very efficient if one scan using one pair
of TOFD probes can be used. The main problem is obtaining sufficient coverage for
the near surface regions. This is why TOFD is very efficient for inspections when
only the bottom half of the weld or the root area is to be inspected .
Let us consider an example inspection in a metal of thickness 40 mm and the
specification is for inspection of a volume of metal + or - 40 mm about the weld
centre line. We will assume a probe frequency of 5 MHz and a very conservative
value of 0.7 for the factor F.
The best depth resolution, as we shall see later, is obtained for a maximum time
spread between the lateral wave and the back wall signal. This would be obtained for
a steeper beam angle in the metal, i.e. 45 degrees. The beam spreads for various
beam angles in steel are listed in the Table below for 5 MHz probes. The coverage
for the 45 degree beam aimed at 2/3T for 6 mm diameter crystals is illustrated in
Figure 5.4.

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Figure 5.4 Effective volume of coverage for two 45 and two 60 degree probes (5 MHz)
aimed at 2/3T
Beam spread, degrees in steel

Angle, degrees D = 6 mm D= 10 mm D = 15 mm
45 34.0 - 57 38.8 - 51.8 40.8 - 49.9
60 47.3 - 84 51.9 - 70.6 54.5 - 66.5
70 54.0 - 90 59.6 - 90.0 62.6 - 82.1
Table 5.4 Beam spreads for 5 MHz probes in steel
The 45 degree probes result in a small volume of coverage (upper part of Figure 5.4)
even for crystal diameters as small as 6 mm. Thus recourse has to be made to 60
degree probes, which for a 6 mm diameter crystal enables the bottom two thirds of
the weld to be covered (see bottom half of Figure 5.4). 70 degree probes were not
considered since it was felt that the time scale was becoming to squashed and the
depth resolution was poor.
The top section of the metal needs a separate pair of probes aimed specifically at
the top region missed by the pair of 60 degree probes aimed at 2/3T shown in Figure
5.4. The effect of using either a pair of 60 degree or a pair of 70 degree probes aimed
at 0.25T is shown in Figure 5.5.

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Figure 5.5 Effective volume of coverage for two 60 and two 70 degree probes (5 MHz)
aimed near surface region
It appears in Figure 5.5 that the near surface region is best covered by the 70 degree
probes. In practise the actual beam spreads will probably be adequate for both
angles. The 60 degree probes will give better depth resolution and the 70 degree
probes a wider coverage. The most suitable compromise must be decided.
Finally in order to completely cover the inspection region of + or - 40 mm from the
weld centre we need to carry out 3 scans with each set of probes, the 60 degree pair
aimed at 0.66T and the 60 or 70 degree pair aimed at 0.25T (see Figure 5.6). This
entails a total of 6

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Figure 5.6 Complete coverage of + and - 40 mm about weld centre with 3 scans (30
mm apart) using two pairs of TOFD probes
scans altogether or 3 scans , 30 mm apart, collecting data from both pairs of probes
at the same time.
Thus it will not always be possible to inspect a sample with one scan and careful
thought should be put into the design of the optimum probe arrangement and
number of scans. If possible the chosen configuration should be tested on a
calibration sample of the same thickness of the sample to be inspected and with a
number of reflectors inserted to cover the volume of interest.
5.3 Examination of Material to be Inspected

Before carrying out an inspection there are a number of steps which should be carried
out in order to improve the quality of the inspection and aid in the interpretation of the
detected ultrasonic signals. These are,
a) Obtain general metallurgical properties of the weld, i.e. type of weld and
method of welding and conditions of plant operation. Enquire about any
historical evidence of failure and type of flaws which may be expected.
b) Examine the parent metal on each side of the weld with a compression probe
for imperfections such as laminations and tears. These may help to explain
bands of signals in the resultant D- or B-scans.
c) Check for any sudden changes in material thickness of the parent metal each
side of the weld. Such changes may result in more than one backwall signal.
d) Check for any effects of material attenuation or coarse metallurgical structure.
High frequency waves are more rapidly attenuated in the passage through
metal and the effect is increasingly important for long beam paths. Possible
methods for checking are described in Section 12.3.
5.4 Choice of Probe Angle
Let us first consider the time range between the lateral wave and the back wall
signal, since this is the region of importance which needs to be recorded. The
formula for calculating the time of arrival of these two signals was given in section
3.5.3.5 and the time range is simply the difference, i.e.
time range = 2(s2 + D2)1/2/c - 2s/c
Some examples are given in the Table below for a wall thickness of 40 mm and the
probes aimed at 2/3T. Common sense would indicate the maximum time spread
would be for the

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Angle in metal, degrees

45 60 70
PCS, mm 48 83.2 132.0
Lateral wave, µs 8.1 13.0 22.2
Back wall, µs 15.7 19.4 25.9
Time range, µs 7.6 5.42 3.8
Table 5.5 Time range between lateral wave and backwall signal
steepest angle and this is confirmed in the table, the 45 degree angle having the
biggest time spread. The greater the time spread the better the resolution of the
signals along the time axis and the more accurate the depth measurement. However,
it has been seen in section 5.2 that a greater volume of inspection coverage can be
obtained with higher beam angles and thus in the detection scans these tend to be
used.
There are two other factors which must be considered. The first, is that the optimum
angle for diffraction is between 60 and 70 degrees. The second, is that for thick
samples the PCS may be very wide for the larger angles which may reduce the
amplitude of the signals and may make scanning difficult.
5.5 Choice of Probe Frequency
In general the choice of the PCS to achieve the desired volume of coverage defines
the time window between the lateral wave and back wall. In order to resolve tip
diffraction signals between the lateral wave and back wall there must be time for the
several cycles defining the individual signals to occur and time for them to be
sufficiently separated to be able to distinguish them. In the time range calculations
in Table 5.5, 60 degree probes on a sample 40 mm thick give a time difference of 5.4
µs. For a 1 MHz probe with a complete cycle time (1 wavelength) of 1µs there would
be only 5 cycles, which is clearly insufficient. For a 5 MHz probe the cycle time is 0.2
µs and in the time difference 27 cycles which is satisfactory.
Thus we can see that the more cycle times in the time window between the lateral
wave and back wall signal the better the depth resolution. Provided the number of
cycle times is above 30 the optimum resolution will be obtained. In practise a
compromise has to be reached and one should aim to have at least 20, preferably
more, cycles. The number of cycles is easily increased by increasing the frequency
but attenuation and scatter may increase, the input power will be decreased, but
above all the beam spread will be reduced.
The following table may help in the choice of inspection frequency.

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Thickness, lateral - back 1 MHz 3 MH z 5 MHz 10 MHz 20 MHz

mm wall, µs
10 1.25 1.3 3.8 6.3 12.5 25.1
25 3.13 3.1 9.4 15.7 31.3 62.7
50 6.265 6.3 18.8 31.3 62.7 125.3
100 12.53 12.5 37.6 62.7 125.3 250.7
Table 5.6 Number of probe cycles that can fit in the Lateral wave to Back wall
window
The values were worked out in the table for a PCS aimed at 2/3T in steel. Thus,
from the table we can see that for various thickness of metal the following probe
frequencies are recommended,
< 10 mm > 20 MHz
10 to 25 mm 15 to 7.5 MHz
25 to 50 mm 7.5 to 4 MHz
> 50 mm < 4 MHz
In practise useful work can be carried out in a thickness of 6 mm using 15 MHz and
generally 5 MHz would be used for 25 mm thickness and above.
Both the transmitter and receiver probe should normally have the same frequency
within a tolerance of 20%.
The above recommended choice of frequency may need to be modified in the case of
higher than normal attenuation in the parent material or the weld metal. In
particular it may have to be reduced. The measurement of attenuation is described
in Section 12.3 and some possible effects are discussed in the Section on gain (5.7).
5.6 Choice of Probe-Centre-Separation
Unless a specific area of the weld is specified for inspection the 2/3T rule is generally
used for setting the PCS for the initial inspection. However, if in the sample being
inspected the resultant coverage is not adequate (see section 5.2) and more than one
pair of TOFD probes are required then the PCS will have to be adjusted to optimise
the coverage for each pair of probes. In parallel - scans or when a specific region is
specified (e.g. root) then the PCS may be set to aim at a specific depth. If the depth
is d mm, then the PCS for a probe angle θ is given by,
2s = 2dtanθ
5.7 Calibration and Setting of Gain
5.7.1 Gain is not dependent on reflector size

The major problem with TOFD in setting a gain level is that the diffraction signals
come from the defect tips and the amplitude of the diffraction signals is not related
to the size of the defect. In normal ultrasonic pulse-echo inspections the gain is

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usually set with respect to the signal from a standard reflector such as a flat-
bottomed hole or side-drilled hole or notch.
Unfortunately for TOFD flat-bottomed or side-drilled holes cannot be used. The
signal from a flat-bottomed hole is simple related to its area and bears no relation to
the strength of diffraction signals. A side drilled hole of large enough diameter will
give two separate signals in a TOFD scan but neither is very useful. The top signal is
largely a reflection of the top of the hole, and thus strong, while the second signal is
partially a creeping wave which runs round the bottom of the hole.
The diffraction signal are usually about 20% of the amplitude of the back wall
signals, but since the back wall signal is mostly a reflected signal which depends on
many factors it cannot reliably be used as a reference signal. There are two
recommended ways of setting the gain. If neither is suitable it is best to use the back
wall signal and set the gain so that it is at full screen height and then add a further 10
dB.
5.7.2 Use of diffraction signal from slots to set gain

The first method entails having a series of thin slots and using the signals from the
bottom of the slots to set the gain level. The method is described in more detail in
the British Standard (BS 7706). The slot must be an upper-surface breaking slot (see
figure below), and not a bottom-surface breaking slot. This is because the signal
from the bottom of a slot gives an amplitude very similar to the diffraction signals
from fatigue cracks, while the signal from the top of a slot is largely by reflection.
Slots of 1/3T and 2/3T should be placed in a calibration sample of similar thickness
and if possible material to the sample to be inspected. Alternatively slots at depths
covering the range of interest in a suitable calibration block should be used. The
gain should be set to make the signal from the deepest slot about 60% of full screen
height (FSH), provided the signal-to-noise ratio of the diffraction signals is
satisfactory. With this set-up the back-wall signal will normally be saturated.
Provided the PCS is not too wide the lateral wave signal, which will have a low
amplitude, will be visible above the noise in the A-scan.
Figure 5.7 Arrangement for determining gain
5.7.3 Use of grain noise or “grass” to set the gain

The second method is also described in the British Standard and uses grain noise to
set the gain. In this case TOFD signals should be obtained from a calibration block
and then the gain should be altered to make the acoustic grain scatter visible over

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the time-scale of interest (say 5% FSH). The electronic noise prior to the arrival of
the lateral wave should be lower than the grain noise. The problem is that the noise
in the welds to be inspected may be much worse than a calibration block and it may
be more appropriate to set the gain using the typical noise levels from the actual
samples to be inspected. This method of setting the gain will ensure that all the
defect signals are detected. However, if the overall gain setting is to high the
resultant B or D-scan will be filled with bright signals which may make the
interpretation more difficult than if a somewhat lower gain had been used. If this
method is used it is essential to ensure that all the correct A-scan parameters are
being used by for example ensuring that the backwall signal from the sample being
inspected or a suitable calibration block gives a material thickness within say 0.25
mm of the actual thickness.
5.7.4 Effect of attenuation or coarse grain noise on gain setting

The effect of more than normal attenuation is often ignored in a TOFD examination
provided a lateral wave and a backwall signal are observed. However, in order to ensure
an efficient inspection of all the weld volume of interest the effect of attenuation and
coarse grain scattering should be investigated as described in Section 12.3. In the case of
using slots in a test block to set the inspection gain, if the additional attenuation in the
sample being inspected is equivalent to more than a 2 dB decrease in signal strength then
the difference should be added to the gain to be used in the inspection.
Regardless of which method is used to set the inspection gain the gain should be set to
give a generally mottled background in the D-or B-scan inspection images. The intensity
of the mottling should be greater at the focal depth (cross over point of beam centres). In
order to ensure efficient isonification of the entire volume of material being inspected the
amplitude of the grain noise or mottling at the extremities of the area of interest should
not be less than -12 dB of the grain noise at the focal depth. The extremities of the area
of interest is generally just below the lateral wave and just above the backwall. If the
variation is greater than 12 dB then the specimen should be divided into depth zones
and/or wedge angles to ensure a reasonable level of grain noise throughout the area of
interest. Alternatively a lower inspection frequency may help to overcome the problem. If
the specimen is divided into depth zones a larger diameter probe should be considered
since this will concentrate the beam spread into a smaller volume of metal.
5.7.5 Calibration or checking of the inspection set up

It should be part of the procedure for the inspection, and is of paramount
importance to carry out a scan over the calibration slots before and after the
inspection for the first method of setting the gain. For the second method of setting
the gain the material thickness of the sample being inspected or a calibration block
of similar thickness must be determined to better than 0.25 mm. This provides a
record for the client that the system was working as specified during the inspection.
It also helps to prevent silly mistakes and ensure that you are inspecting the correct
depth range with the right parameters and probes. The calibrations provides checks
on probes, leads and all electronics and the computer and its peripheries
helps to reduce errors before inspection, i.e. correct PCS

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post calibration ensures the inspection is valid. If anomalies are discovered

then the inspection should be repeated or justification provided in a non-
conformance report.
Calibration samples may also be required to demonstrate other TOFD
characteristics. These could include demonstrating the achievable precision for near
surface flaws,( i.e. the near surface and backwall dead zones due to the lateral wave
and backwall signals (see Chapter 6)), or the effect of the backwall blind zone (see
Chapter 6) on the minimum size of backwall opening flaws that can be detected for
a non-parallel scan. For measuring the size of the dead zones slots should be cut at
the near and backwall surfaces at depths of say 2, 4, 8 mm, while for the blind zone a
series of slots of the minimum flaw depth of interest should be cut on the backwall at
distances from the scan centre line of say 0, 10, 20 and 30 mm.
5.8 Digitisation Rate and Pulse Repetition Frequency
The need to digitise the analogue electrical ultrasonic signals has been explained in
Chapter 4. For reasonable amplitude reproduction of the signals a digitisation rate
of at least 5 times the probe frequency should be used and the rate must be at least
twice the probe frequency to avoid the signal aliasing problem. The depth sizing
accuracy is linked to the accuracy of measuring the transit time of the various signals
and the more samples are used to reproduce the signal shape the more accurately
this can be done. Thus from a timing accuracy point of view something like 10 or
more samples per period of the waveform would be ideal (i.e. for a 5MHz probe this
would mean a digitisation rate of 50 MHz or more). However, the higher the
digitisation rate the greater the number of samples needed to represent the TOFD
A- scans and the more disk storage required and the slower the scanning speed.
The pulse repetition frequency (prf) is the rate of firing the transmitting probe and
has been explained in Chapter 4. Depending on whether manual scanning or
scanning with encoder assistance/ motorised scanning is to be used the prf should be
set accordingly.
5.9 Region of A-scan to be Digitised
The time window over which the A-scan is digitised and recorded should start just
before the lateral wave signal and extend just beyond the compression wave backwall
signal for detailed sizing. For detection purposes it is recommended that the time
window be extended to just beyond the first mode converted backwall signal. Often
signals whose path is entirely made up of compression waves are difficult to see (e.g.
near surface indications) and these may show up better after the compression
backwall signal (provided the probe separation is adequate). This is because part of
their path is made up of shear waves travelling at approximately half the speed of the
compression waves. It is also useful to verify, whenever possible, that the signal from
an indication is repeated after a mode conversion.
If there is no lateral wave signal or backwall signal the time window will have to be
calculated and checked on a suitable calibration block.

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5.10 Signal Averaging and Pulse-width
The optimum signal-to-noise should be obtained for the tip diffraction signals, which
means setting the amplifier filters, the pulse pulse-width and the amount of signal
averaging as described in Chapter 4. Because of the noisy electrical environments of
computers and the usually noisy electrical environments in which inspections are
often carried out signal averaging is usually essential in TOFD inspections.
5.11 No signals - Common faults
If no signals are obtained in the A-scan then a few of the common faults are listed
below,
check gain setting high, order of 70 dB
check couplant not dried out in shoe
check cables correctly connected to probes and specified transmitter and
receiver channel number
check shoes facing each other
check that flaw detector circuits are working with for example a
compression probe.
A useful test is to make the transmitter and receiver channel numbers the same and
run each probe in turn in the pulse-echo mode. Large signals should be obtained. If
the amplitude of the signals are very different from the two probes then, after
checking the couplant, etc., it may be necessary to change one of the probes.
If the signals do not look right check,
the lateral wave and back wall signals are arriving at the times calculated
(plus probe delay). It is very easy to mistake the shear back wall signals as
the compression back wall signal and the later as the lateral wave.
Remember the lateral wave is very weak.
check the probe frequency, diameter, and shoe angle are as expected
check filter settings are correct
check response from a simple calibration sample
check for possibility of mode converted signals.

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5.12 Manual versus Mechanical Scanning
5.12.1 General
The prime requirements for TOFD scanning are to maintain
a) good ultrasonic contact with the surface,
b) a constant probe separation by holding the probes sufficiently rigid
c) a straight scanning line
d) for good contact over uneven surfaces each probe needs to be individually
sprung and gimballed.
The mechanisms holding the two TOFD probes generally have a means of changing
probe separation so that the beams can focus over a range of depths and as
explained earlier the individual compression probes generally are easily
interchangeable with different angled shoes. The latter flexibility has the drawback
of the couplant between the probe crystal and shoe drying out with time.
The TOFD probe array can be moved manually or by means of a motorised scanning
mechanism.
5.12.2 Manual Scanning
Manual scanning is quite feasible and in situations where access is difficult it may be
the only practical way of carrying out the inspection. Manual scanning is often
quicker than setting up a mechanical scan. There are a number of drawbacks to
manual scanning because the sampling interval is not constant. The SAFD process
can not be used since it relies on the data being collected on a constant sampling
interval. Also use of the parabolic cursor for measuring defect length and location
of the defect in the B-scan will not be so accurate. However, provided care is used to
move the probes at a uniform speed then generally adequate length sizing and
positioning can be accomplished to better than + or - 5 mm.
For manual scanning the data collection system can only fire the transmitter probe at
a regular rate defined by the pulse repetition frequency, regardless of the position of
the probes. Thus to ensure A-scan data is collected at a regular sampling interval of,
say, 1 mm it is important to set the transmitter firing rate (pulse repetition
frequency) to match the scanning speed as explained in Chapter 4.
There are in addition a number of simple steps that can be taken to help to ensure a
regular scanning speed. In general there will be two operators required in a TOFD
inspection, one moving the probes and the second operating the data collection
equipment. They may be more than 50 m apart and be in contact with each other by
some local communication system. Before starting a scan it should be marked up on
the sample being inspected and marks made at regular intervals (e.g. 100/200 mm).
One aid is for the data collection operator to call out the position along the scan
during the collection (e.g. 0.25, 0.5 and 0.75 of the scan distance or apparent distance
- 100 mm , 200 mm, etc.). This gives the scanning operator a good idea of where he
should be. Alternatively, if suitable software is available, the scanning operator can
call out regular distances along the scan as he passes them (e.g. 100 mm, 200 mm,

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etc.), and the data collection operator can add a marker into the data collection file.
These markers should be subsequently recognised during the data analysis.
A very useful addition to manual scanning is the provision of a simple encoder
system. A wheel can often be fixed to the TOFD array, the rotation of which drives
an encoder the output of which is fed into the digital ultrasonic data collection
system.
5.12.3 Mechanical Scanning
There are many situations where automated scanning is essential. The mechanised
systems may be controlled by the TOFD digital data collection system or the
mechanised system may have its own motor drive control system. In both methods
encoder feedback should be available for the ultrasonic data collection system so
that the TOFD A-scans can be collected at regular sampling intervals.
It is important for parallel scans that the start position of the scan is accurately
known with respect to the weld centre line so that the location of defects can be
accurately plotted on the cross sectional profile of the weld.
5.12.4 Sampling Interval

It has become almost traditional to collect a TOFD A-scan at a sampling interval of
1 mm. This gives very clear pictures and in the case of noisy or poor quality data a
good chance of recognising the signals from the characteristic parabolic shapes
which occur from the tips of the defects. However, it does mean that a considerable
number of A-scans have to be stored over a long scan, and in many situations a
sampling interval of 2 or 3 mm would be quite adequate. The choice therefor
depends on the probe separation being used and the quality of the TOFD data.
5.13 Temperature
TOFD inspections can be routinely carried out at temperatures up to 150 ° C using

appropriate coupling fluid. At temperatures greater than this the probes/shoes and cables
near to the high temperature vessel must be cooled. Also above this temperature care has
to be taken to protect the operator with suitable shields or heat resistant suits must be
worn. Inspections at up to temperatures of 300 ° C may be currently be carried out.
However, between 200 ° C and 300 ° C the inspection sensitivity may fall due to the
increase in noise from the vessel material due to the high temperature. Special couplants
must be chosen for such inspections.
Higher temperatures can be accommodated for permanent monitoring specific defects by
bonding special probes permanently onto the metal, provided sufficient inspection
sensitivity can be achieved.
5.14 Couplant

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For routine TOFD inspections normal couplant materials, as used with conventional
pulse-echo inspections can be used. The characteristics of the couplant should be
suitable for the temperature range in which it is to be used.
For automated inspections it is often convenient to bore a small hole through the probe
shoe and supply water couplant directly beneath the shoe. A peristaltic pump is ideal for
supplying the water since any blockage is normally released from the pressure build up.
By supplying the couplant beneath the shoe the minimum amount of couplant is
required.
For general scanning the wear of the probe shoe is avoided by attaching metal wear
plates to the sides of the shoe. This so called gap scanning (typically 0.2 mm) also helps
to provide a uniform layer of couplant and consequently more consistent results. Gaps of
0.25 and 0.5 of the wavelength should be avoided because of possible interference effects
between the shoe and the metal surface.
5.15 Special Techniques
Normally a TOFD inspection is carried out using the longitudinal waves with the beam
centres aimed at say two thirds of the specimen depth. However, situations can arise
when the use of special techniques is useful.
5.15.1 Double Skip

Where there is a problem in resolving features near the scanned surface (e.g. in presence
of a wide weld cap) it may be beneficial to observe the feature by reflection or skipping
from the backwall as shown in the figure below. Near surface flaws will not now be
Figure 5.8 Arrangement for double skip

hidden by the lateral wave and should be seen just above the signal from the near surface
which will appear as the backwall. The arrangement depends on the backwall being
smooth and flat and the probe separation should be sufficient to ensure that the echo
arrives before the strong mode converted backwall echo. If sizing is carried out care
should be taken since the backwall is effectively at a depth of twice the thickness.
5.15.2 Use of Mode Converted Echoes

The TOFD probes have shear waves at approximately half the angle of the longitudinal
waves and the longitudinal waves also produce mode converted shear waves on

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reflection. Thus features in the specimen being inspected may produce a series of echoes
after the longitudinal one. These further echoes can be very useful for shallow flaws, for
which the longitudinal signal is hidden by the lateral wave, since the lower velocity of the
shear wave beam path component will enable the signals to be seen at a later time and
give better resolution. The method will work best if one of the probes is placed close to
the flaw and if the probe separation is not too wide.
5.15.3 Use of Off-Axis Scans

Normally in a non-parallel TOFD inspection it is arranged that the flaws lie close to the
centre plane between the probes. However, the time delay between the lateral wave and
the echo from a shallow defect increases if the flaw is close to one of the probes. Thus
the resolution between these echoes can be improved by using an off-axis scan. The depth
measurement may more inaccurate due to the echoes being off-axis.
5.16 Summary of Choice of Parameters for a TOFD Scan
Step-by-step guide to setting of TOFD parameters.

Step1: Choice of ultrasonic probes
The correct choice of probes is very important since the quality of the ultrasonic
signals is the overriding factor in the success of an inspection.. Probe frequency and
diameter are dealt with below. Overall there must be sufficient power or signal-to-
noise to obtain signals from the region of interest (pointing to larger diameters and
lower frequencies) which must be balanced against the need for large beam spreads.
The effect of attenuation in the specimen also needs to be considered and balanced
against the need for adequate timing resolution.
Step 2: Examination of material to be inspected
The inspection can be most efficiently designed if as much information is obtained
prior to the inspection on the type of weld and its operating conditions (i.e. the most
likely type of flaws which need to be detected and their location). In addition the
parent material should be examined for laminations and any changes in thickness.
Finally the effect of any greater than normal attenuation or coarse grain structure
should be investigated.
Step 3: Choose Probe Frequency and type of probe
Using the criteria that a minimum of 20 cycles must fit into the time window between
the lateral wave and back wall signal select the probes with frequency nearest to this
criterion.
The type of probe should be chosen such that the pulse length for the lateral wave
and backwall echo do not exceed two cycles measured at 10% of the peak amplitude.
The two probes in a TOFD array should have the same centre frequency within a
tolerance of 20%. Additional attenuation or coarse grain structure should be allowed
for.
Step 4: Set Probe Separation (PCS)
Define the correct PCS for all available probe angles using the 2/3T rule or whatever
is appropriate. Make sure they are consistent with the width of the weld cap and the
dimensions of the available scanning surface.

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Step 5: Choose Probe diameter

Calculate or plot with suitable software the beam spread and the resultant inspection
coverage. For the non-parallel scans this will normally necessitate choosing the
smallest diameter probes available in order to get adequate coverage. The larger
diameter probes give more energy in the material but have a smaller beam spread.
For parallel scans, if the approximate depths of interest are known the beam spread
restrictions may be relaxed.
Step 6: Select Number of TOFD probe arrays and Scans required
Depending on the results of Step 3 and the inspection specification a decision must
be made on how many probe pairs and scans will be needed to cover the depth range
and volume of interest. Remember that if more than one TOFD probe pair are
required each can be optimised for the region they are inspecting, i.e. they need not
have the same frequency diameter and PCS.
Step 7: Select A-scan collection parameters
i) Select the digitisation frequency consistent with the need to optimise the
timing accuracy to give adequate amplitude resolution ( 5 times the nominal
probe frequency) with a minimum requirement of 2 times the probe
frequency.
ii) Select the filter settings to give the best signal-to noise ratio. Minimum
bandwidth is between 0.5 and 2 times the nominal probe frequency.
iii) Select the pulse-width setting of the firing pulse to give the shortest signal
to maximise the depth resolution.
iv) Set the signal averaging to the minimum required to give a reasonable
signal-to noise ratio.
v) Set the time window to cover the part of the A-scan to be digitised (i.e.
from before the lateral wave to beyond the backwall signal (mode
converted for detection)
vi) Finally set the pulse repetition frequency to match the data collection
speed.
Step 8: Set the Gain
If possible use either calibration blocks containing upper-surface opening slots to
determine the inspection gain settings or set the gain by setting the noise level at
about 5% screen height . For the first method the gain is set to give signals from the
bottom of the slots at about 60% FSH. Additional attenuation or coarse grain
structure should be allowed for.
When possible flaw indications have been detected further scans should be carried
out to define the flaws more accurately. Since the position of the flaw is now
approximately known some of the requirements can be relaxed (e.g. wide beam
spread) and parameters optimised to obtain the most accurate results (e.g. higher
frequency, larger diameter and closer probe separation).
A complete step by step guide to a TOFD inspection is listed in Appendix 3.

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6. ERRORS
6.1 Introduction
The purpose of this part of the course is to indicate the errors in the TOFD
technique and the steps which can be taken to reduce errors. The TOFD technique
is used for both measuring the through wall height and length of defects. The
determination of length from the distance the signal remains in the D-scan is very
similar to the methods used in conventional pulse-echo and has a similar accuracy.
The TOFD technique comes into its own in the accuracy of the through wall sizing
and it is for this application that the errors are considered.
In the discussion on precision in Chapter 5 it was mentioned that measurements with
ultrasonic signals in theory could be made to a precision of about 0.1of a wavelength,
and typically for 5 MHz probes this would correspond to 0.1 mm. In terms of transit
times this correspond to a time interval of about 0.017 µs. We shall see later that the
various errors in TOFD combine to give on average an error of about 1 mm in the
sizing accuracy.
The most important limitations of the TOFD technique are,
near surface depth resolution
problem of near surface signals hidden by the lateral wave
backwall blind zone when performing non-parallel scans.
The important lesson we shall learn is that for accurate sizing it is necessary to
measure the time of signals with respect to the lateral wave and back wall.
6.2 Timing Errors
We have seen from the basic depth calculation in Chapter 3 (ignoring the probe
delay), assuming that the defect tip is symmetrically positioned beneath the two
probes, that
the time, t, is given by
t = 2(s2 +d2)1/2/c
and the tip depth becomes by rearrangement,
d = [(ct/2)2 - s2]1/2
Squaring both sides gives
d2 = (c/2)2 t2 - s2
If this equation is now differentiated with respect to t and d, the depth error δd can
be expressed as a function of the time error δt, i.e.
2dδd = (c/2)22tδt
substituting the first equation in this section for t gives,
δd = c (s2 +d2)1/2δt
2d
Chapter 6 Errors. Page 63

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Near to the surface d < s and the expression simplifies to

δd = csδd
2d
Thus as the depth decreases the error δd increases rapidly. The timing error, δt, is
taken as half the digitisation sample interval since when taking measurements at a
crossover point or a peak the sample nearest to required point is chosen and the
error is then no more than half a sample width.
In the table below some typical depth error values are calculated for a sample of
thickness 40 mm, velocity 5.95 mm/µs and a PCS of 100 mm. If the probe frequency
is 5 MHz we will assume a 25 MHz digitiser which has a sample interval of 0.04 µs
and hence δt = 0.02 µs. The values in the Table are also plotted as a graph in Figure
6.1
d, mm 1 3 5 10 20 40
δd, mm 3.0 0.99 0.6 0.3 0.16 0.09
Table 6.1 Example of depth error as a function of depth
Figure 6.1 Example of depth error as a function of depth due to timing uncertainty
The graph brings out clearly the rapid increase in the depth error near to the
surface. This is due to the fact that the ultrasonic path in this region is almost
horizontal and a large change in depth produces only a small change in time.
To improve the resolution in the near surface region reduce the probe separation
(reduce s). This, in effect, makes the tip deeper. While reducing the PCS is very
effective in improving the depth resolution it will reduce the inspection coverage and

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maybe require more scans. Also the timing error may be reduced by using a higher
rate digitiser if available. A more effective way to reduce the timing error is to
increase the probe frequency, but again this will reduce the beam spread.
Another way of looking at the depth resolution is to consider the resolution as a function
of angle. If we take the basic depth formula derived above, i.e.
2dδd = (c/2)22tδt
and express the time ,t, as a function of the probe angle,θ,
range = 2d/cosθ and time t = 2d/ccosθ and therefor
δd = c δt
2cosθ
A plot of the depth error as a function of angle is given in Figure 6.2 for δt = 0.02 µs.
This further illustrates the rapid deterioration in resolution near to the horizontal, i.e.
large angles. Thus in this example, if a depth resolution of better than 0.2 mm was
required, the angle of incidence of the sound to the crack tip would have to be less than
70 degrees.
Figure 6.2 Example of depth error as a function of angle for a given timing uncertainty
Another criteria sometimes used is to define a depth below which the depth error is more
than twice the depth. This is easily derived from the above expression for the depth error
δd = csδd
2d
If we use the condition δd =dmin/2 and inset this in the above equation, then
(dmin)2 = csδt

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where dmin is the minimum acceptable depth. Some values are given in the table below.
s, mm δt, µs dmin, mm
50 .02 2.4
50 .015 2.1
25 .02 1.7
25 .015 1.5
Table 6.2 Minimum depth for an error of half the depth
6.3 Near surface Problems
There are two main problems with defects near to the inspection surface, the poor
depth resolution due to the timing uncertainty and the presence of the lateral wave.
The rapid deterioration in the depth error has been dealt with in the last section and
it was shown that in order to improve the resolution the probes should be moved
closer together and the accuracy of the time measurements improved.
The other problem is that the signals from the crack tips may be hidden beneath the
lateral wave signal. The lateral wave may ring for several cycles, typically up to two
periods. Some examples of the depth equivalent to two periods duration of the
lateral wave are given in the table below. The time to the end of the lateral wave is
the transit time of the lateral wave, i.e. 2s/c, plus two periods duration. A PCS was
obtained using the 2/3T rule. The following relationship was used for calculating the
depth,
d = [(ct/2)2 - s2]1/2
sample 2s, mm Frequency, two total time, equivalent

thickness, mm MHz periods, µs µs depth, mm
10 23 15 .133 4.0 3.1
25 58 5 0.4 10.148 8.39
50 115 5 0.4 19.73 11.8
Table 6.3 Illustration of equivalent depth of lateral wave
Thus the presence of the lateral wave is a serious problem and for probe arrays
aimed at 2/3T it extends the equivalent of many millimetres. If the PCS is reduced
then the equivalent depth is reduced and this is another reason to carry out a
separate scan of the near surface region using higher frequency probes and a smaller
PCS. In the above it has been assumed that the lateral wave rings for two complete
cycles, but if the number of cycles can be reduced then the depth over which the
lateral wave occurs will also be reduced.
Software is generally available for removing the average lateral wave signal from the
B- or D-scan and this can help to reveal any underlying diffraction signals. An

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indication of a possible signal can sometimes be seen in the lateral wave because of
interference between the two signals and a change in the regular pattern. Also
signals from the near surface region can often be seen better after the back wall, as a
shear wave signal, because of the lower velocity the time scales are effectively
increased.
Of course surface breaking defects should be easily seen because they interrupt the
lateral wave signal and appear as a dip in this signal. Sometimes, however, if the
defect has very little length the lateral wave will get round the sides and the defect
will not be detected.
In summary these near surface problems can be reduced by,
reduce the PCS and increase the digitisation frequency
use higher frequency probes
use highly damped broad band probes
6.4 Dead Zones
6.4.1 Lateral wave dead zone

Signals from near surface internal flaws can be hidden beneath the lateral wave
signal. Hence the depth equivalent to the lateral wave signal can be considered a
dead zone. If the time-of-flight to the start of the lateral wave is TL (= 2s/c) and the
length of the lateral wave acoustic pulse in microseconds up to an amplitude of 10%
of the maximum is Tp then,
dead zone distance, mm = sqrt((c*(tl+(2(1/f)))/2)²-s²)
c = Velocity mm/microsecond Tl = Time of lateral in microsecs
Td = Time to backwall in microseconds s = half pcs
D = Plate thickness mm f = Probe frequency
For example consider the inspection of a 40 mm thick sample with 5 MHz probes
and a probe centre separation of 100 mm. If the pulse length is taken as two cycles
for the lateral wave, i.e. 0.4 µs then the dead zone is equivalent to 11 mm. The depth
can be decreased by decreasing the probe separation or by using probes with shorter
pulse lengths.
6.4.2 Backwall Dead Zone

A signal from a flaw may be obscured by the backwall signal (e.g. excess
penetration). Hence the depth equivalent to the backwall signal can also be
considered as a dead zone. If the depth of the backwall is D mm and its time-of-
flight is TD and if the length of the backwall acoustic signal up to an amplitude of
10% of the maximum is Tp then,
dead zone distance, mm = (sqrt((c*((Td+(4(1/f)))/2)²-s²))-D
For example consider the inspection of a 40 mm thick sample with 5 MHz probes
and a probe centre separation of 100 mm. If the pulse length is taken as four cycles
for the backwall echo, i.e. 0.8 µs then the dead zone is equivalent to 3.7 mm. The

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distance can be decreased by decreasing the probe separation or by using probes

with shorter pulse lengths.
6.5 Off-Axis Error and Back Wall Blind Zone
6.5.1 Off-axis depth error

The general situation for non-parallel scans is shown below in Figure 6.3. The crack
tip is offset from the axis between the two probes by the distance X mm, and the
transit time (neglecting probe delay) is given by
t = (L + M)/c
i.e. ct = [(s + X)2 + d2]1/2 + [(s - X)2 + d2]1/2

The time t is a minimum when X = 0 and in this situation the crack tip is on the
centre line between the two probes and the expressions for time and depth are those
given in Chapter 3. It has been shown in Appendix 1 that the path length, ct, of a
constant time-of-flight, t, represents an ellipse with the beam entry points as foci (see
Figure 3.16).
Since for a non-parallel scan there is uncertainty in the lateral position of a signal
there will be an error in the derivation of the depth. The maximum possible depth,
dmax , for a transit time of ct is at the deepest part of the ellipse (i.e. when X = 0).
The minimum possible depth, dmin , is when the crack tip occurs on the same ellipse,
transit time ct, at the edge of the beam of ultrasound (see Figure 3.16).
Figure 6.3 General TOFD Layout
In Appendix 1 it is shown that the depth error is a complex function of depth probe-
centre-separation and probe characteristics and at the edge of the ultrasonic beam
the error can vary from almost zero to 60% and greater. If the flaws are only present
in the weld volume then for much of the weld volume the depth error is less than
3% for a single ‘V’ weld and less than 1% for a double ‘V’ weld, although at the toes
of the welds the error is larger.

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When the beam centres are aimed at a certain depth then at the edge of the beam of
ultrasound at this depth the depth error is typically about 8%. Thus for a weld root
erosion inspection, with the probes aimed at the backwall the depth error at the edge
of the beam is 8%, i.e.
(dmax - dmin) / dmax = 8%
Thus for an off-axis reflector for a sample 50 mm thick the maximum depth error at
the backwall is 4mm for a weld root erosion scan.
Thus the absolute error on the depth measurement of off-axis defects can be several
millimetres. If the defect is quite small the error will be similar for the top and
bottom of the defect and the through wall height reasonably accurate. For “V”
shaped welds it is not generally such a problem since the bottom of the weld is
usually fairly well centred between the probes. It is more of a problem for double
“V” welds and in the heat affected zone. The problem is reduced if large probe
separations are used, which makes ct larger. In most situations, however, with a
single “V” weld the additional depth error due to the off-axis location is small. Also
when determining flaw height from top and bottom tip diffraction’s the off-axis error
will tend to cancel. The off-axis error does not apply in the case of parallel scans
across the weld.
A method is described in Appendix 2 for improving the determination of depth for a
non-parallel scan utilising the additional information in the mode converted
diffraction signal.
Thus it can now be seen why parallel scans are important for the most accurate
depth sizing, since the sizing is carried out when the defect tips are on the central
axis between the probes.
6.5.2 Back wall blind zone
Figure 6.4 Illustration of Back Wall Blind Zone
The lateral uncertainty of the defect tips besides causing a possible error in the
absolute depth estimate, may also lead to a blind zone at the back wall. Consider the
situation were the off-axis defect tip occurs at a time on the same constant transit
time ellipse equivalent to the start of the back wall signal (see Figure 6.4). The signal

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from the tip would be hidden by the back wall and will not therefor be detected. This
is known as the back wall blind zone effect.
We have seen in the last section that the maximum difference between the maximum
depth on the axis between the two probes and the minimum depth that can occur at
the edge of the beam is about 8%. Therefor to ensure that all defects in the beam
spread can be seen above the back wall they must be more than 8% of the wall
thickness above the back wall. For the example of a 50 mm wall thickness all defects
must be over 4 mm high to ensure detection.
Thus it is very important in a TOFD inspection to obtain a detailed specification
from the client of the minimum size of defect to be detected and the area of search,
plus the type of weld, and consideration should always be given to the need for
several non-parallel scans If the criteria in our 50 mm wall thickness is to detect all
defects more than 2 mm high in a double “V” weld and in the heat effected zone
then more than one scan will be required. For example the specification may well be
met with two scans one aimed to the left of the weld centre line and the other to the
right of the centre line.
The TOFD technique has been extensively used in the offshore oil and gas industry
for weld root erosion inspection. TOFD is ideal for this since it covers all the weld
root in one pass and the pattern of signals from erosion are easily recognised.
However, before any such inspection consideration should be given to the possible
effect of the back wall blind zone.
6.6 Spatial Resolution of embedded defects
The idea of the minimum resolution distance between two signals was introduced at the
beginning of Chapter 5. To obtain the minimum size of reflector for which a separate top
and bottom can be resolved the equivalent is defined by the length of the acoustic pulse.
If tp is the length of the acoustic pulse in microseconds (up to amplitude of 10% of the
maximum) and td is the time-of-flight at depth d mm, then the spatial resolution , R
mm, can be calculated from,
R = [(c{td + tp}/2)2 -s2]1/2 - d
Take for example an inspection with 5 MHz probes of a sample 40 mm thick using a
probe centre separation of 100 mm. The pulse length is assumed to be two complete
cycles of the centre frequency, i.e. 0.4 µs. The resolution is calculated at various depths
in the table below,
depth, mm Resolution,
mm
5 7.1
10 5.0
20 3.0
40 1.9
The resolution increases with increasing depth and can be improved by decreasing the
probe separation or the pulse length. The size of reflector which can be resolved into a

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separate top and bottom increases rapidly as the near surface is approached. Typically
pores and slag lines, which may be about 2 mm deep, will not be resolved into a top and
bottom.
6.7 Effect of change in Probe Separation and Importance of

Calibration with Lateral and Back wall signals
6.7.1 Change in Probe Separation

The probes are generally fixed to flexible mounts and the probes may move with respect
to one another as the scan proceeds. We will now calculate the effect of an a change or
error in the distance s of δs. Returning to the basic TOFD equation
d2 = (c/2)2 t2 - s2
and differentiating with respect to d and s,
dδd = -sδs
An error in the assumed probe separation can have a relatively large effect on the
absolute depth measurement, but the effect on the difference in height between two tip
signals would be less. For example for s = 50 mm and an error δs = 1 mm gives for a
depth of 10 mm an error of δd = 5 mm.
Errors of this order of magnitude in the depth measurement are unacceptable and hence
the use of self calibration using the position of the lateral and back wall signals.
6.7.2 Importance of Calibration

In the last section we have seen that a small change in the probe separation can lead to a
large error in the absolute depth determination. However, if we measure the time of
arrival of the tip signal with respect to the lateral or back wall signal the error is greatly
reduced. Let us consider these two options.
Measurement of time with respect to lateral wave
A tip at depth d occurs at time,
ct = 2(s2 +d2)1/2
and the lateral wave at time,
ctl = 2s
and hence the time between them is,
ctr = c(t-tl) = 2(s2 +d2)1/2 -2s
and since d < s,
ctr = 2s[(1 + (d/s)2)1/2 -1] ~ d2/s
If we differentiate with respect to d and s we get,
δd = - ctrδs/2d = - dδs/2s
Measurement of time with respect to back wall
A tip at depth d occurs at time,
ct = 2(s2 +d2)1/2
and the back wall occurs at time
ctb = 2(s2 +D2)1/2
and hence the relative time is,
ctr = c(tb - t) = 2(s2 +D2)1/2 - 2(s2 +d2)1/2

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Provided s > D and s > d we can expand to get

ctr ~ (D2 - d2)/s
If we differentiate with respect to d and s we get
δd = - ctrδs/2d ~ D2δs/2ds
A comparison is made in the Table below on the absolute depth measurements, for s =
50 mm, D = 40 mm and δs = 1 mm, when,
a) the time to the crack tip is measured and the velocity, PCS and probe delay
are input parameters, i.e. absolute depth calculated
b) the times to the crack tip and the lateral wave are measured and the input
parameters are the PCS and velocity, i.e. depth relative to lateral wave
calculated
c) the times to the crack tip and the back wall are measured and the input
parameters are the PCS, wall thickness and velocity, i.e. depth relative to back
wall calculated
depth, mm Absolute with respect to with respect

time lateral wave to back wall
5 10 0 3.2
10 5 0.1 1.5
20 2.5 0.2 0.6
40 1.2 0.35 0
Table 6.4 Error in depth measurement, mm, due to error in stated PCS
The absolute depth calculation based on what was thought to be the correct PCS gives
large errors. The errors on the depth calculation when the time is measured relative to the
lateral wave and back wall are much less. When relative to the lateral wave the error
slowly increases with depth from zero error at the lateral wave and vice versa for the error
relative to the back wall, were it starts at zero at the back wall.
In practise it is advised to take measurements of the position of the lateral wave and
back wall positions and from a knowledge of the PCS and wall thickness, D, calculate
the velocity and probe delay as outlined in Chapter 3 and to use these values when
calculating the depth of a tip signal.

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Figure 6.5 Illustration of where to measure lateral and back wall positions due to
change in PCS
This is a form of self calibration since the velocity and probe delay will be such that
the surface of the metal is at 0 mm and the back wall signal at depth D mm. Thus the
relative positions of the tip signals will be forced to be almost correct and the errors
relatively small.
In order for the self calibration to be effective the measurements of lateral and back
wall position must be done in the vicinity of the tip signals, as illustrated in Figure
6.5. This is
because a change in the probe separation or some other form of error will cause all
the signals in the A-scan to move either to smaller or longer times.
6.8 Errors in couplant depth, surface height variations and

velocity
6.8.1 Error due to variations in couplant depth

Since the ultrasonic velocity is much lower in the couplant than in metal the effect on
depth measurements can be large if absolute depths estimates based on just the arrival
time of the tip signals is used. However, as we have seen in the last section, the errors are
greatly reduced if the times are measured with respect to the lateral wave (the lateral
wave position must also be measured at a point where the effect of the couplant
thickness change has also taken place).
The ultrasonic path through the couplant is shown in figure 6.6 . If the couplant layer is
H mm thick then total couplant length, L, traversed is L = 2H/cosψ, where ψ is the
angle in the couplant. If θ is the angle in the metal and from the fact sin θ =s/(s2 +d2)1/2
using Snells law,
L = 2H/[1 - (cc/cm)2 s2/(s2 + d2)]1/2
where cc and cm velocity of sound in couplant and metal respectively. If cc < cm then by
expansion
L ~ 2H[1 + 0.5(cc/cm)2 s2/(s2 + d2)]
Figure 6.6 Ultrasonic path through couplant layer
The error in time due to an error in H, δH is then

δt = 2δH[1 + 0.5(cc/cm)2 s2/(s2 + d2)]/cc

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and with respect to the lateral wave, i.e. where d = 0

δtr = 2δH[1 + 0.5(cc/cm)2 s2/(s2 + d2)]/cc - 2δH[1 + 0.5(cc/cm)2]/cc
= 2δH(cc/cm)2 d2/(s2 + d2)]/2cc
using the usual formula to express error in depth due to error in time
2dδd = c(s2 + d2)1/2δt
we obtain for the couplant,
δd = ccdδH/2cm(s2 + d2)1/2
Some examples of the error are given below for s = 50 mm, cc = 1.5 mm/µs, cm = 6 µs
and δH = 1 mm
d, mm δd, mm δd, mm with respect

absolute time to lateral wave
5 21 0.01
10 10 0.025
20 5.4 0.046
40 3.2 0.08
Table 6.5 Depth errors due to change in couplant thickness
If time is measured with respect to the lateral wave above the tip signal the error on
the calculated depth is very small due to a change in the couplant thickness, but if
absolute time is used then the error may be very large.
Excessive movements of the lateral wave due to lift-off or changes in probe
separation will simulate the effect of a surface breaking flaw or make the recognition
of these flaws more difficult. Thus care should be taken in the design of the scanner
so that a smooth movement is possible.
If the lateral wave is jiggling up and down in time, then software is usually available
for straightening out the signals (lateral wave straightening) and this will enable the
depth measurements on the resultant image easier to make and to be more accurate.
However, if upper-surface opening defects are suspected the back wall must be used
for the straightening since using the lateral wave may move the signals from the
bottom of the defect up to the lateral wave.
6.8.2 Error due to variations in surface profile

A serious source of error would be an unsuspected variation in the surface height, δh, of
the material under test under one of the probes. It would be expected that any depth
measurement from the resultant scan would have an error of approximately ½ δh in
magnitude, and this is verified by calculation.
For d < s the error can be shown to be approximately,
δd = δh(1 +d2/2s2)/2 and for d < s δd ~ δh/2
Thus a bump in height of 1 mm would cause an error in the depth estimation of about
0.5 mm. However, in working out the through wall size of a defect the error would largly
cancel.

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A sample with mismatch or a transition of thickness between either side of the weld
will create large depth errors using the standard formulae.
6.8.3 Velocity error

Obviously a change in the velocity of the material being inspected from the expected
velocity would cause an error in the absolute calculation of depth. If the velocity change
is over a sufficient length of the scan self calibration with the lateral and back wall
signals will largely overcome the error, since a velocity will be calculated to make the
lateral wave occur at 0 mm and the back wall at its stated thickness, D mm.
The time of a signal with respect to the lateral wave is (see section 6.6.2),
ctr = c(t-tl) = 2(s2 +d2)1/2 -2s
If differentiation is carried out with respect to time and velocity
δt = -2δc[(s2 +d2)1/2 -s]/c2
and since δd = c (s2 +d2)1/2δt then δd = -δc(s2 +d2)1/2[(s2 +d2)1/2 -s]/cd
2d
The following Table gives some example of the depth error for s = 50 mm, c = 5.95
mm/µs and δc = 1% of c, i.e. 0.06 mm/µs
depth, mm 5 10 20 40
error, mm 0.025 0.05 0.1 0.22
Table Examples of depth errors due to a 1% error in velocity
The errors associated with velocity can and should be controlled by procedure and
the use of reference standards of the same material is recommended.
6.9 Index Point Migration Errors
The depth calculation equation assumes that the ultrasound enters the specimen at a
fixed index point. However, in practise, this is not quite true as can be seen in Figure 6.7.

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Figure 6.7 Illustration of variation in index point on surface of metal with defect position
Defects near the top surface tend to be seen by rays coming from the inside edge of the
probe shoe and rays from defects near back wall from the outer edge of the probe shoe.,
i.e. the probe separation is a function of depth.
For an example consider the case of 60 degree probes having extreme rays at 45 and 90
degrees in the metal. If the velocities in the shoe and metal are 2.4 and 6 mm/µs
respectively the beam centre angle in the shoe is 20.44 degrees and the beam edges in the
shoe are at 16.5 and 23 degrees. If the path length is 10 mm in the shoe of the beam
centre then the height, h, of the exit index point at the face of the transducer crystal is
10cos(20.44) = 9.3 mm. Thus the distance to the exit points on the lower surface of the
shoe for the edges of the beam are,
x1 = 9.3tan(16.5) = 2.75 mm and x2 = 9.3 tan(23) = 4.06
and the separation x2 - x1 = 1.3 mm. Thus over the two probes the total variation in PCS
is 2.6 mm.
The effect is most important when the probe separation is smaller than about twice the
specimen depth (i.e. PCS < 2D). But in general the effect for more normal probe
separations is very small and less than 0.25 mm in magnitude. For the most accurate
depth calculations the correction to be applied can be found by calculation or by
calibration against artificial reflectors at various depths below the surface.
6.10 Other Errors

The most important sources of error have now been described. There are, however, a
number of other small errors which can contribute to the overall error. These are,
changing the transducer
probe angle variations
probe skewing
attenuation of ultrasound

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angle of diffraction
angular velocity variations
The majority of these errors have the effect of modifying the pulse shape and slightly
distorting the measurements of time between one echo and another. In general they will
be smaller than the errors already described in previous sections. A quantification of their
effect can often only be obtained by trials on sample materials or test blocks.
6.11 Multiple Arcs
When operating in the near field occasionally complex patterns of arcs are seen from
each reflector. In this situation it appears that rays of ultrasound are generated and
received from the edges of the shoe thus giving the appearance of two transmitters and
two receivers and resulting in four separate arcs in a parallel scan. One possible solution
is to mask most of the shoe face with absorbing material or cut it smaller to leave a thin
aperture.
6.12 Large Grained Materials
6.12.1 General
Materials with large grains are very difficult to inspect because of the additional
scattering from the grains. The grains can be equivalent in size to the wavelength of
the ultrasound. This is especially a problem in the nuclear industry where austenitic
steel has to be often used.
In austenitic components and weldments the metallic crystals, in addition to
scattering the sound and increasing the general noise level, show anisotropic
behaviour and the velocity of sound depends on the direction with respect to the
crystal axes of the metal. The effect of this there will not only be an error in the
depth estimates of any crack tips due to the variation in velocity but also additional
bending of the rays such that certain volumes of the material may not be inspected at
all. These complications are explained more fully in the book by Charlesworth and
Temple (1989).
6.12.2 Cladding
In the nuclear and chemical industries pressure vessels may be covered by a thin
layer of austenitic steel. Ferritic steel has small grains and the elastic properties are
almost isotropic. However, cladding layers crystallise into long columnar grains with
aligned axes and as a consequence the elastic properties are anisotropic. This will
cause the velocity of sound to vary and depend on the direction of propagation. This
will cause the depth to be underestimated. Models have been developed for
calculating the effect. For example for a 8 mm layer of cladding the depth error is 5
mm at 12 mm below the surface and the magnitude of the error gradually decreases
with increasing depth below the surface.

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6.13 Overall Errors and Monitoring Growth
6.13.1 Overall Errors
All the errors listed in this Chapter contribute to the overall depth accuracy which
may be calculated by taking the square root of the sum of the squares of all the
individual errors. Some of the calculated individual errors are listed again in the
Table below assuming that the velocity and probe delay have been derived from a
measurement of the position of the lateral wave and back wall signal. For this
example we assume D = 40 mm, PCS = 90 mm, probe angle = 60 degrees and a 50
MHz digitiser.
Depth, Due to timing Due to error in Due to surface Due to Overall

mm uncertainty probe bump, couplant depth error,
δt = 0.01µs separation, δs δh = 1 mm variation, mm
= 1 mm δH = 0.5 mm
2 0.67 0.02 0.5 0.00 0.84
5 0.27 0.06 0.5 0.00 0.57
10 0.14 0.11 0.5 0.01 0.53
20 0.07 0.22 0.56 0.03 0.61
40 0.04 0.44 0.75 0.04 0.87
Table 6.6 Example of individual and overall errors
As emphasised before the biggest depth error is near the upper surface and is due to
the timing error, but as the depth increases the error becomes smaller. The other
sources of error are generally small near the upper surface and gradually increase
with depth. A typical plot of the overall error is shown in Figure 6.8. The overall
error is large near the upper surface and generally drops to a minimum at a depth of
about 10 mm and then gradually rises. For typical errors, however, the overall error
over the depth range of interest stays below 1 mm (except for the first 3 or 4 mm). It
is for this reason that the

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Figure 6.8 Example of Overall Error as a function of Depth
TOFD depth sizing accuracy is generally quoted as + or - 1 mm.

The individual and overall error curves are calculated in the AEA Sonomatic
TOFDAIDS software package and an example of a plot of the error curves is given
in Appendix 5.
6.13.2 Monitoring Defect Growth

The overall error in measuring crack size contains several systematic type errors, i.e.
wrong velocity, surface bumps and PCS. In a monitoring situation, when repeat
inspections are carried out on a particular crack to monitor its growth, then some of
these systematic errors can be removed by using the same probes and the same
configuration. With care there is no reason why a change in crack size to within 0.3
mm cannot be attained.
6.14 Estimate of Flaw Length from a TOFD D-Scan
6.14.1 Introduction
The estimation of flaw length from a TOFD D-scan (non-parallel scan) does not use
the accurate time of arrival of the signal like the depth sizing, but rather on
measuring the position of the extremities of the signal and trying to correct for beam
spread. Thus in general the estimation of flaw length with TOFD is very similar to

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standard pulse-echo techniques and would be expected to give a similar accuracy, i.e.
about + or - 5 mm.
For flaws which have profiles parallel to the metal surface there are a number of
techniques for making length measurements with at least or even better than the
above accuracy and these are described below.
However, if the profile of the flaw is curved, as it often is, then it is much more
difficult to make accurate measurements and in general the error is much larger and
the length is underestimated. Some empirical rules are presented below for making
length measurements with regular curved profiles to about the same accuracy as
non-curving profiles.
6.14.2 Estimation of length for flaws with profiles parallel to the

metal surface
Flaws with profiles parallel to the specimen surface are generally internal flaws such
as lack-of-fusion, inter-run fusion, slag lines, etc. There are a number of possible
measurement techniques for estimating the length of a flaw.
Flaws with profiles parallel to the metal surface will produce a signal with a
minimum time delay when the two TOFD probes are in line with the flaw. However,
the signals will still be obtained when the probes approach and leave the flaw due to
beam spread, resulting at the ends of the flat section of the signal corresponding to
the length of the flaw characteristic arc shaped records. This resultant echo is the
sum of many such arcs all along the length of the flaw, but because of the destructive
interference which takes place with bipolar signals only the arcs at the ends of the
flaw and the signals along the length of the flaw remain detectable (see Figure 6.9).
Figure 6.9 Shape of TOFD D-scan record due to flaw with profile parallel to surface
6.14.2.1 Use of shaped cursor representing a point source

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The use of a cursor shaped (parabolic) to represent the signal from a point source is
described in Chapter 8 and Figure 8.1 illustrates its use for determining the length of
a flaw.
The total length of the flaw record on a TOFD D-scan is,
length of flaw + length of total arc from a point source,
and this relationship is the basis of the estimate of the flaw length using the arc
shaped cursor. The length of the total arc from a point source is equivalent to the
beam spread. As described in Chapter 8 the normal method of operation is to use
the arc shaped cursor to
fit in turn to the ends of the echo from the flaw. Assuming the flaw has a finite
length this fitting operation will require lateral movement of the cursor and the
distance moved is taken to represent the length of the flaw. Because it is using all the
information in the signal arc to fit the cursor the method is quite accurate and
should achieve an accuracy of better than + or - 5 mm.
6.14.2.2 Measurement of beam spread
An alternative approach is to use the shaped cursor to measure the beam spread.
The shaped cursor is positioned at the region of the signal with minimum delay (see
Figure 6.10) and to measure the width of the cursor, W, at the time delay
corresponding to the flaw signal extremity (or backwall signal if goes beyond
backwall). The length of the flaw is the distance between the flaw extremities, L,
minus the beam spread W. If no cursor is available the beam spread can be
calculated.
In general the previous method is recommended since it uses all the information in
the arcs to get the best fit and the method will also give an indication if the fit is poor
that the flaw
Figure 6.10 Measurement of beam spread

profile is curved. If the profile is curved both methods tend to be very inaccurate.
6.14.2.3 Use of the SAFT technique to measure length

A further way to measure flaw length is to carry out the Synthetic Aperture Focusing
Technique (SAFT) (see Chapter 8) on the TOFD D-scan and then use the 6 dB drop
sizing method to measure the length of the reconstructed flaw signal. SAFT appears to
produce a collimated beam from the transducer with a beam width of half the crystal
diameter and thus greatly reduces the beam spread of a normal transducer and hence

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allows much more accurate determination of flaw length, especially for flaws smaller
than the normal beam spread.
Since the SAFT process is slightly more time consuming and requires 6 dB drop sizing
the use of the shaped cursor on the original D-scan data is generally favoured.
6.14.3 Estimation of length for flaws with curved profiles (rear surface
breaking)
Most cracks are surface opening and they tend to have a continuously curved profile, e.g.
elliptical, since they grow from some initial imperfection at the surface. Thus the shape of
the echo is not so simple as for a profile parallel to the metal surface. The following
techniques are mainly applicable for the far surface opening cracks, since they generally
cannot easily be measured by any other technique than ultrasonics, and are generally the
cracks of most concern. As shown in Figure 6.11 the origin of the arcs along a curved
flaw are not all at the same depth and the resultant signal depends on which arcs
contribute to the earliest echo at any point. In addition the extremities of the flaw may
not be seen, either
Figure 6.11 Shape of TOFD D-scan record due to flaws with curved profiles
because the angle of the flaw profile is large at the ends or because the echoes are lost in
the larger backwall echo.
The sizing methods described above for flaws with profiles parallel to the surface will
have considerable errors if applied to flaws with curved profiles and in particular to
undersizing of the flaw length, which is undesirable for safety calculations. M. G. Silk
(1996) reports from an exercise he carried out that typical errors of 12 mm with an

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undersizing of 11 mm are likely for rear surface opening flaws with curved profiles using
the shaped cursor technique. Thus it is important to recognise the possibility of curved
flaws from the fact that the arcs at the ends of the signal are a poor fit to the shaped
cursor.
If there is only a top signal in the D-scan record then it will be most likely to be a rear
surface opening crack, if not a slag line, thin lack-of-fusion or interrun fusion, and have
a curved profile.
M. G. Silk also describes various algorithms used to estimate the length of curved flaws.
The first and most accurate method is to use the shaped cursor and fit it in turn to the
two wings of the signal and note the distance apart. The cursor is not, however, fitted to
the entire length of the signal arcs since the fit will be very poor, but at a time equivalent
to one third of the flaw penetration.
The second method is to measure the total length of the echo, L, together with the beam
spread or width of the shaped cursor, W, when the cursor is fitted to the region of the
echo with minimum time delay and the width noted at the delay corresponding to the
flaw extremities (or the backwall if the signal disappears into the backwall). The length
of the flaw is given by,
[L*(L-W)]0.5
The third method is the same as the second but the formula for the length is given by,
[L-0.8*W],
i.e. subtract 80% of the beam spread from the length of the flaw echo.
According to the above mentioned report of M. Silk the first method gives good results
for curved profiles with errors less than normal, but is very poor for flat profiles with
considerable oversizing. The second method gives errors slightly better than normal for
curved profiles and poor results for flat profiles with considerable oversizing. Finally the
third method gives errors about normally expected with some degree of undersizing for
curved profiles, but is only marginally worse for flat profiles with some oversizing.
6.14.4 Conclusion
For internal cracks which have a profile reasonably parallel to the metal surface their
length can be measured to + or - 5 mm or better using a shaped cursor fitted to the
extremities of the signal or by using the SAFT technique and 6 dB drop sizing.
However, these methods can give poor results for rear surface opening cracks. For
rear surface opening cracks with a curved profile the recommended technique is to
fit the shaped cursor at one third the penetration of the extremities of the signal.
It is thus very important to recognise the type of flaw being measured and to use the
appropriate technique. One indication is the quality of the fit of the shaped cursor to
the extremities of the signal. Surface opening cracks are likely to have a curved
profile (e.g. elliptical) rather than a rectangular shape since they tend to grow from
some surface
fault (e.g. corrosion). Thus, unless there is clear evidence to the contrary, when only
the top signal from a crack is observed use the curved profile techniques to measure
the length.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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M. G. Silk, 1996, “An Evaluation of the performance of the TOFD technique as a

means of sizing flaws, with particular reference to flaws with curved profiles”, Insight,
38 No. 1, pp 280-287

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7 DATA ASSESSMENT - FLAW CHARACTERISATION
7.1 Basic analysis
Any indications detected by TOFD provided they meet the acceptance criteria
agreed with the client should be characterised by at least,
their position in the object (x,y co-ordinates)
their length (∆x)
their depth and height (z and ∆z)
their type (top-surface or bottom surface breaking or embedded)
Since a simple amplitude threshold cannot be applied to TOFD data for defining a
reporting threshold all the TOFD data has to be visually analysed. It has therefor
taken a long time for acceptance criteria to be defined and accepted for TOFD. In
the last section of this Chapter a proposed European Acceptance Standard is
described.
For a non-parallel scan, has explained in Chapter 3, the surface of constant time-of-
flight is an ellipsoid centred around the index points of the two probes. In general it
will be sufficiently accurate for depth measurements and for position measurements
to assume that the indication is located mid-way between the two ultrasonic probes .
However, the most accurate depth measurement and location of the crack tips in the
cross section through the weld can only be obtained by carrying out parallel scans.
Additionally the B-scans can resolve echoes which are masked in the D-scans. In
particular in D-scans, echoes originating close to the scanned surface or backwall are
often masked by the permanent signals associated with these features
Alternatively multiple non -parallel scans can be carried out in different positions
or with different probe centre separations and then noting the common crossing
point of the various loci at the time equivalent to the observed indication for each of
the scans.
The depth measurements can be carried out with a cursor on the linearised image of
each TOFD scan. The linearisation program is described in Chapter 8 and it
converts the basic time scale of the inspection data to a linear depth scale. The
velocity and probe delay are determined from the measured position of the lateral
wave and backwall echo in the TOFD image (see Chapter 3 for how to take the
measurements). This helps to reduce systematic errors (see Chapter 6). Alternatively
it is often easier and quicker to work on the original data with the linear time scale
and use the parabolic shaped cursor to read off the depth at specific points. The use
of the parabolic cursor is explained in Chapter 8.
The techniques used in measuring the lengths of indications in TOFD D-scans are
described in Chapter 6. In general indications with an apparent length of less than
1.5 times the size of the probe crystal are too small to be sized.
Additional computer algorithms are available for aiding the analysis of the data and
these are described in Chapter 8.
Chapter 7 Flaw Characterisation. Page 83

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7.2 Introduction to Characterisation
The remainder of this Chapter is concerned with trying to further characterise any
reportable indications. Once a flaw has been detected and it is regarded has
reportable it is often important to be able to make a guess as its character. This may
be important to the client since defect type, location and size will have a bearing on
any action needed. Also the type of flaw is important in deciding whether a flaw can
grow to failure. With conventional pulse-echo experienced technicians from the
character of the signals on the A-scan trace and its position in the weld and a
knowledge of the welding technique and plant circumstances can make valuable
guesses as to the character of the defect.
The same is true for the TOFD technique, there is no magic formula. Again
common sense and as much background knowledge as possible are the main
elements. In a later section are listed the types of additional scans which can be
carried out to give more detailed information. For characterisation the parallel scan
is very important, since by revealing the location of the defect in the cross section of
the weld and its likely orientation this will provide a valuable clue to the possible
types of flaw. If possible, always collect some pulse-echo as well as TOFD data since
the two techniques are complimentary and the more information there is the more
likely the correct characterisation can be made of the detected flaws. It is important
for a uncategorised flaw or a flaw where there is uncertainty that it should be
characterised as “worst case” and be called a crack until proven otherwise.
With pulse-echo the variation of signal strength with probe angle can help to
distinguish volumetric defects from planar ones, but with TOFD this is not so easy
and other clues have to be used.
An important clue to the characterisation of an indication is the phase of the tip
diffraction signals. Signals with the same phase as the lateral wave should be
considered to originate from the lower tip and signals with opposite phase should be
regarded as from the upper tip diffraction signal.
The British Standard on TOFD (BS 7706) gives an excellent step by step guide to the
characterisation of TOFD flaw echoes and lists the types of flaws which are generally
recognised.
It must be emphasised that cracks are very rare occurrences in welds and on average
only a few reportable cracks might be expected in a kilometre of weld. However,
welding flaws such as porosity, slag and undercut and overcut are much more
common, especially in older welds. Thus the main problem with the TOFD records is
in eliminating the non-crack like defects since usually they are of much less
importance and identifying the rare crack. Very often the TOFD records, especially
from very old welds, look to be full of signals and the first impression is one of
calamity.
Hence it is very important not to frighten the client with these records, since they will
not really understand the signals and immediately think they will have to shut down
the plant. Only after detailed analysis of all the signals and elimination of all the
non-important signals should a report be presented to the client. In many cases
where the signals are confusing further scans may be required and pulse-echo

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examinations carried out before reporting a defect. Even then, records presented to
the client should be cleaned up or processed in such a way that the main conclusions
are clearly presented. It may be better to only present profiles of the reportable
defects. Everything should be done to make the clients job easier and the report
clear and simple.
In this Chapter a few clues for the identification of defect types are presented, but
we will start first with a few comments on shear waves and mode converted signals.
7.3 Shear Waves
Compression (longitudinal) waves are used for TOFD, since they arrive at the
receiver first before any possible shear waves and make the specification of a velocity
for sizing easier. Shear waves are produced and received by the probes at
approximately half the angle of the compression waves and they may also be
produced by mode conversion when the compression waves hit a reflector. There is
nothing to stop shear waves being used, it is just that it makes the interpretation
more difficult. Occasionally they are useful because of the shorter wavelength for a
given frequency and a lower velocity, which spreads the signals out further in time.
When looking for near surface defects it is always useful to look for the shear wave
signals, after the normal back wall signal, since they can often be more clearly seen.
In theory there will be no complete shear wave path signals before the compression
back wall if the probe separation is such that even the shear lateral wave occurs after
the compression back wall, i.e.
2s/cs > 2(s2 + D2)1/2/cl and if cl ~ 2cs 2s > (s2 + D2)1/2
and after rearranging
s > D/(3)1/2
where cl and cs are the compression and shear velocities respectively.
When mode converted signals occur a common situation is for half the path to be at
the compression velocity and half at the shear velocity. This can give rise to a
familiar pattern in the parallel scans which initially can cause confusion, but which,
once you are aware of the pattern, gives confirmation of signals. This pattern is
sketched in Figure 7.1.

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Figure 7.1 B-scan from Parallel scan showing characteristic pattern of mode
converted signals
Imagine a parallel scan which is approaching a defect tip. The shear wave from the
nearest probe hits the tip and is mode converted and picked up at the other probe as
a compression wave. This is the signal in the bottom left of the B-scan. Then as the
probes are moved over the tip the compression wave from the first probe is
diffracted and received as a compression wave (signal in middle of B-scan at top).
Finally as the probes move past the defect the compression wave still hits the tip at
the edge of the beam and is mode converted into a shear wave which is picked up by
the second probe (signal in the bottom right of B-scan). The overall pattern is thus
the normal diffraction pattern with two similar patterns beneath it and displaced
either side of it. Whether the mode converted signals come before or after the back
wall depends on the position of the tip in the sample being inspected. This pattern
does not normally occur for non-parallel scans except if the tip is to the side of the
centre axis between the probes. In the latter situation it is possible to sometimes see
the normal compression diffraction signal and one of the displaced
shear/compression signals.
7.4 Pores and Slag in TOFD Records

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Since planar type flaws (cracks) have generally much more serious consequences it is
important to separate volumetric type flaws from planar ones. Typical examples of
volumetric type flaws are pores and slag lines. Small pieces of slag and pores have
little length and height and produce signals which look like arcs on the D-scan. If the
slag line has some length the signal will have a flat region corresponding to the
length (see Figure 7.2). It is rarely a requirement to report these flaws and the
requirement is to eliminate these signals from the records. In general their shape is
so characteristic that they can easily be recognised.
If there is a cluster of pores it may be necessary to measure the volume they occupy
and report its size if above the criterion specified. Clusters of pores give a complex
array of signals and it may be necessary to use the SAFT process to clean up the
image before the analysis can be carried out.
Figure 7.2 Appearance of Pores and Slag in D-scan
Longer stringers of slag may be left behind by the welding process and will give
similar echoes but they will be much longer. These flaws are often broken into
segments as shown in Figure 7.3.
Generally there height is sufficiently small that there is no separate top and bottom
signal. Less commonly the pores or slag lines may have a resolvable depth and show
a split into a separate top and bottom signal. The two signals should show a phase
difference but this may be difficult to see since the signal from the top of rounded
objects, like pores and slag lines, is largely reflected rather than diffracted with the
consequent much higher amplitude. Only the lower echo arises by diffraction.

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Figure 7.3 Appearance of long Slag Lines
7.5 Internal Cracks

For internal crack-like flaws the record will comprise of echoes from the top and
bottom tips (see Figure 7.4). The amplitude of the two signals should be relatively
weak and of similar amplitude. The phase information is very important since if the
phases are opposite the signals must belong to a single defect. For a non-parallel
scan if the flaw is not close to the centre line between the probes there is some error
in estimating the height and a greater error in estimating the depth.
Internal volumetric flaws or slag lines which are deep enough could also look like a
crack (see Figure 7.4), but in general the top signal will be much brighter. The crack
tip profile varies from flaw to flaw so this amplitude difference is only a guide.
Where the interpretation is doubtful the use of shear wave probes with a range of
angles may help to distinguish between planar and volumetric indications.
7.6 Upper Surface Breaking Cracks
Flaws which break the upper surface produce a distortion of the lateral wave. The
appearance of the signal for the parallel and non -parallel scans is shown in Figure
7.5. When scanning, the probes may suffer some degree of lift-off and cause the
lateral wave to jitter up and down and it may be difficult to detect the flaw. As
mentioned earlier if software is used to straighten out the lateral wave it must be
done, in this situation, by aligning the image on the back wall signal in order to
preserve the genuine dips in the lateral wave. For probe lift-off both the lateral wave
and backwall signal will move together.
The signal from these flaws appear as an echo from the bottom edge of flaw and
hence will show no phase change.

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Figure 7.4 Appearance of internal crack and thick slag line
Figure 7.5 Appearance of Top Surface Breaking Flaw
A cross check for these kind of flaws is to use either an angled creeping wave probe
or to look for the corner reflection after a skip of the backwall with an angled shear
wave probe.
7.7 Lower Surface Breaking Cracks
The appearance of a lower surface breaking defect in a non-parallel scan was

illustrated in Figure 3.12 and explained in section 3.3.3.6. Cracks which are surface
opening to the back wall are indicated by an echo migrating from and returning to

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the backwall. The tip diffraction signal from the top of the crack should show a phase
change.
Single signals near to the back wall are the most difficult to interpret because there
are a number of alternatives. For example it could be a slag line or a surface opening
crack. While in general a slag line will produce a signal of larger amplitude than
from a crack it is not always true. In this situation the only way to tell is to carry out
more scans and probably it is more useful to look for the presence of a corner
reflector with pulse-echo probes or a creeping wave echo.
A surface breaking defect will have a profile somewhat as shown in Figure 7.6. As
the angle of the flaw steepens towards the edges the efficiency of the diffraction
process will decline and the echoes from the crack may not extend all the way to the
back wall. Most
Figure 7.6 Profile of Rear Surface Breaking Defect
echoes from pores and slag will extent to high angles and as shown in figure 7.7
extend.
beyond the back wall, whereas the echo from a crack stops reasonably abruptly
If the data has been collected mechanically at regular sampling intervals SAFT
processing may help to eliminate pore and slag signals near the back wall since they
should appear as straight lines rather than the “elliptical” shape of surface opening
cracks.
Figure 7.7 Appearance of signal from Defects near to or breaking lower surface
7.8 Effect of changing Defect Profile
If the defect profile along the weld direction changes its profile from the horizontal
the efficiency of the diffraction process may decrease if the defect slope becomes
steep and there may be an amplitude variation as well as a change in depth of the

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signal in the D-scan. Some examples are given in Figure 7.8. Such patterns in the
signals may help to give an indication of the defect profile.
Figure 7.8 Change in Signal Strength due to change in Profile
In the Chapter on analysis software a parabolic shaped cursor that mimics the signal
shape expected from a point reflector is described. This is used to measure the
lateral length of defects by fitting the parabola in turn to the wings on either side of
the signal. Normally the parabolic cursor should be a good fit to the wing signal if it
corresponds to the diffraction signal from the end of the crack. However, if the crack
is sloping or changing profile the fit may be poor (see Figure 7.9) and such an
occurrence is an indication of such a change in profile.
Figure 7.9 Use of Parabolic Shaped Cursor to detect if Defect Profile is Curved
7.9 Weld Root Flaws and Backwall Features

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The detection of weld root erosion with TOFD is very popular, especially in the
offshore oil industry. During the welding process several kinds of errors can occur at
the root, under cut and over cut, lack of penetration , misalignment, etc. Detecting
cracks in the presence of these kinds of fairly common errors is very difficult for
conventional pulse-echo inspections, and it is largely because the D-scan is recorded
with TOFD that the crack signals can be recognised.
The presence of the welding type errors in a TOFD scan can result in several signals
near to the back wall and if they change in height they can give the appearance of a
crack. Normally such echoes will appear as if the backwall has split into two or more
components and the signals will be much longer than would be expected from a
crack and have larger amplitudes. Misalignment may cause double or even triple
back wall signals but these again should have much higher amplitude than would
occur for a crack and be much longer.
Scans of welds joining plates/pipes of dissimilar thickness again cause a double back
wall echo and these may overlap part of the actual weld volume being inspected.
7.10 Crack Transparency
In regions of high stress the sides of the crack may be forced together so tightly that
ultrasonically the interface cannot be seen and no return signals observed. It is more
likely that this will only happen to part of the crack and signals will be obtained from
parts of it. If it is suspected that part or all of a crack is transparent then it may be
worth using a lower frequency or even using shear waves since the crack may not be
so transparent at other wavelengths, etc.
A somewhat similar effect can be seen when sizing a standard slot. Very often the
slot becomes filled with grease or couplant and several echoes may be seen coming
from the different sections of the slot which are left filled with air (to provide an
acoustic difference).
7.11 Transverse Flaws
It is often assumed that the only type of flaws present are those lying parallel to the
weld direction. While this is largely true, transverse flaws, i.e. flaws lying in the plane
at right angles to the run of the weld can occur. In conventional pulse-echo they are
found by using a pitch-catch probe arrangement with the probes skewed so as to see
a reflection from a transverse crack.
In the normal non-parallel TOFD detection mode with the probes scanning along
the weld diffraction signals will be seen from a transverse crack, but it will have no
length and appear like the signals from a parallel scan over a normal crack. Thus it is
most likely they will be rejected since they will appear to come from a very small
reflector such as a pore.
Thus if transverse cracks are not suspected to be present it is likely that in a normal
non-parallel scan along the weld they will not be reported. It is therefor very
important that the inspection specification is very clear and states that transverse
cracks are likely or not likely to be present and whether an effort should be made to

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detect them. If they are to be detected then every small signal in the non-parallel
scan will have to be examined further by either carrying out a series of parallel scans
along the direction of the weld over the position of the indication or carrying out a
non-parallel scan normal to the weld direction and straddling the position of the
indication. These additional scans should clarify whether the indication has length
normal to the weld.
7.12 Uncategorized Flaws

It may not be possible to categorize the observed signals. This may be because they
are due to cracks with jagged profiles or some other complex form or some other
type of reflector. Such indications should be treated as cracks until more detailed
examinations can be carried out and they can be more precisely confirmed.
7.13 Additional Scans for Detailed Characterisation
To obtain more detailed analysis of position and type of indication generally involves
performing more detailed scans optimised for revealing the property in question, i.e
different angles, frequencies and/or probe separations,
i) Parallel scans to distinguish accurate lateral position of indication and its
possible orientation. Also can help to distinguish if more than one flaw
present, e.g. lack-of-side wall fusion on both sides of the weld
ii) Use of lower probe frequency if signal-to-noise ratio too low to distinguish
signals - but will result in increased lateral wave dead zone and reduced
resolution.
iii) Use of higher frequencies to obtain higher resolution, increased sizing
accuracy and a reduction in the lateral wave dead zone - but at expense of
reduced signal-to-noise and coverage.
iv) Use of reduced probe angle (and associated probe separation) to give a
longer time scale between the lateral wave and the backwall echo and
hence increased resolution and increased sizing accuracy and reduce dead
zone - but at expense of smaller volume of coverage.
v) Use of different probe offsets for the non-parallel scan to obtain a better
indication of lateral position of indication and its possible orientation by
use of locus plots.
vi) For near surface or surface opening flaws at either the scanning surface or
the backwall use creeping waves or angled shear wave probes looking for a
corner reflection to help interpret the signals. Alternatively use magnetic
particle or eddy current techniques.
vii) The presence of internal cracks may be verified (especially in the case
where the phase relationship is uncertain) by using the tandem pulse echo
technique.
7.14 Acceptance Criteria

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Since the repair of welds and re-inspection is not only costly but may lead to more severe
defects it is very important to have well developed weld acceptance criteria which
guarantee sufficient quality and limit the number of unnecessary repairs.
A simple reporting threshold, as used with ultrasonic pulse-echo inspections, cannot be
used for deciding which flaws should be reported with TOFD since the tip diffraction
signals are not related to the size of the flaw. Hence, currently the TOFD inspection data
must be visually analysed and some criteria agreed with the client as to which indications
should be reported. The codes referring to TOFD (e.g. BS 7706) have so far not
included any acceptance criteria but rather describe how to use TOFD . Some progress is
now being made and for example the ASME Code Case 2235 - Use of Ultrasonic
Examination in Lieu of Radiography Section VIII, Division 1 and 2, became effective in
1996. TOFD can meet the requirements of Code Case 2235 and be applied to welds of
pressure vessels whose thickness is 4 inches or more, provided a demonstration of the
procedure is carried out on a qualification plate.
In addition work has been carried out in Holland and an acceptance criteria proposed
in European Standards CEN 1997 (Document WGAC9613) for defects in welds with
simple geometry in ferritic steels. The diameter of the vessel or pipework should be more
than 75 mm with a wall thickness from 6 mm up to 300 mm. This proposal came out of
the KINT Project in the Netherlands (Development of Acceptance Criteria for TOFD
Examination Method) which was executed under the auspices of the Dutch Society on
Quality Surveillance and Non Destructive Testing. The project was to enable the wider
application of TOFD on newly build structures, i.e. as a replacement for radiography and
manual ultrasonics. Embedded and surface breaking defects have been inspected with
TOFD, manual ultrasonics and radiography and TOFD defect acceptance criteria have
been verified by means of probalistic fracture mechanics calculations. The acceptance
criteria have been chosen for TOFD such that rejection rates lie in the same range as for
radiography and manual ultrasonics but the probability of failure is equal to or better
than with radiography or manual ultrasonics.
In this proposed acceptance criterion only indications described in terms of lengh, height
and depth are considered (e.g. cracks, lack of fusion, lack of root penetration, slag, etc.)
and single diffraction signals from gas , porosity, etc., are considered separately.
Consider the situation in figure 7.10 where the length of flaws, l, is along the horizontal

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Figure 7.10 Definition of acceptance criteria for TOFD
axis and the height of flaws, h, is along the vertical axis. The acceptance criteria are
defined, as shown in the figure as reject any indication accept if
A) h < h1
B) for embedded flaws if h1 < or = h2 and l < or = l
for surface breaking flaws if h1 < or = h3 and l < or = l1
Definition B) is for flaw heights between h1 and either h2 or h3.
Additional criteria for acceptance are,
i) distance between any two successive indications along a weld should be > or
= the length of the longest indication
ii) distance between two successive indications in the thickness direction of the
weld should be > or = the height of the highest indication
iii) the sum of the lengths of the individual indications measured along the weld
over a length of 12* thickness should be < or = to the thickness.
Indications which do not fulfil the above requirement are considered as a single
indication.
Also any detected surface breaking defect may have a maximum accumulated length of
10% of the total weld length with a maximum of 500 mm.
When single diffraction signals are present in the TOFD scan, their maximum allowable
number, N, in any 150 mm of weld length is to be calculated as follows,
N = rounded number of - wall thickness (mm) *1.2
Examples for various depths are shown in the table below, where d is the depth of the
material.

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max length, l1, if height of embedded defect does max height h1

not exceed h2, or height of surface breaking defect when l>l1
does not exceed h3
Thickness range, l1, mm h3, mm h2, mm h1, mm
mm
6<d< or = 8 d 2 3 1
8<d< or = 15 d 2 3.5 1
15<d< or =40 15 2 4 2
40<d< or = 60 20 3 5 2
60< d< or = 100 25 3.5 5.5 2
100<d< or = 200 50 4 6 3
d> 200 70 4 6 3
Table 7.1 Acceptance criteria for welds inspected by TOFD as function of material
depth

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8 ANALYSIS SOFTWARE
There are many different kinds of digital processing techniques that can be applied
to ultrasonic data. Only a few of the more common techniques used with TOFD are
listed below. The considerable subject of modelling which can be of vital importance
in many applications and complex geometry is omitted. Also omitted is the
considerable subject of filtering and the use of more sophisticated algorithms for
characterising signals and the subject of neural networks. The more common
features of image manipulation and contrast enhancement should be available on
any good digital ultrasonic system and are therefor not described.
8.1 Linearisation
The TOFD B- or D- scan data is a plot of consecutively recorded A-scan data. The
A-scan consists of a series of digital samples on a linear time scale. Because of the
pitch-catch arrangement of TOFD, this scale is not a linear function of depth. The
linearisation software is a file to file program which converts the data to a linear
depth scale. Normally there should be provision for self calibration by noting the
position of the lateral and back wall signals in order to calculate the velocity and
probe delay.
When the linearised file is displayed on the screen the cursor can be used to read of
the depth of signals directly.
8.2 Lateral/Back wall Straighten and Removal
Near surface defects may be partially hidden beneath the lateral wave and top-
surface opening cracks will cause a dip in the lateral wave. These hidden signals,
which will have interfered with the lateral wave can often be revealed by subtracting
an average lateral wave signal from the recorded data. Often it is necessary to
straighten the lateral wave first. One of the main problems when scanning is that a
flexible mounting is required to take up any surface variations, but this often results
in slight variations in the PCS causing the lateral wave (and all the rest of the signals)
to jitter. This can make recognition of small dips in the lateral wave very difficult and
hence the need to straighten out the lateral wave.
The software is normally a file to file program. To straighten the lateral wave it is
usually necessary to define a training area in which the lateral wave is reasonably flat
and free from obvious defects in order to work out an average signal. Then a region
is defined
over which the straightening is required. This is done by moving the averaging signal
along the defined region and finding for each A-scan the time shift which gives the
best correlation between the average and the new A-scan. Each new A-scan is then
time shifted by this amount in the output file.
Once the lateral wave has been straightened a similar operation is done to remove
the average signal from the defined region.
Chapter 8 Analysis Software page 95

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Depending on the ability of the software in difficult situations it may be necessary to

carry out the operation several times on selected areas before adequate results are
obtained.

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8.3 Parabolic Cursor
This facility produces a cursor shaped to the response of a point reflector on the raw
B- and D-scan data ( i.e. linear time axis). As the cursor moves up and down the time
axis the parabola changes shape. The shape depends on the probe separation, the
digitisation frequency, the parameters to enable absolute time to be calculated and
the sampling interval along the scan direction, all of which should be stored in the
file header. There also should be the ability to carry out self calibration on the lateral
and back wall signals to enable the velocity and probe delay to be calculated.
The parabolic cursor is used directly on the raw data (i.e. linear with time) for three
purposes. The first use is to output the depth at the position of the cross wires. The
cursor should also output amplitude so that the correct position for reading the
depth can be obtained after allowing for the phase.
The second use is to eliminate small flaw, such as pores. This is done by moving the
cursor so that the parabola overlays the characteristic response curve of the TOFD
signal (see Figure 8.1). If the fit is reasonable the reflector can be assumed to be
small, i.e. less than about 4 mm in length.
Figure 8.1 Use of Parabolic Cursor for Determining Length
The third use of the parabola is to measure the lateral length of the flaws. If the
reflector has some length it can be measured by positioning the cursor on each
separate wing of the TOFD signal in turn and noting the position along the scan axis
(see Figure 8.1). The difference gives the length. The assumption is that the ends of
the reflector act as diffraction points and produce the arc shape as the probe
approaches and leaves the tip. If the arcs are deep then the method is quite accurate
since we are using all the information in the wings to get a good fit. This is a quick
and easy method of measuring the length without having to carry out the alternative
of a SAFT calculation and a 6 dB drop size. The length in general does not have to
be measured as accurately as the flaw height.

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8.4 Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique - SAFT

The Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique (SAFT) combines the digitised rf waveforms
for different probe positions to synthesise the effect of a large aperture probe. The effect is
that instead of having a divergent ultrasonic beam the probe has in effect a narrow
collimated beam of width equal to half the crystal diameter (see Figure 8.2). Flaws at
deeper depths are often smaller than the beam spread and thus measurement of the
length or height for conventional pulse-echo is difficult, but by in effect reducing the
beam spread SAFT allows the normal 6 dB drop process to be carried out.
The SAFT process also improves the signal-to-noise. Thus SAFT enables the lateral
extent of smaller flaws to be determined more accurately. The SAFT process is only
effective for ranges beyond two near fields. The program processes a B-scan file of TOFD
data and produces a new output file.
Figure 8.2 Effective Beam Spread with SAFT
The SAFT process is illustrated below. Ultrasonic data collected from a probe scanning
over a reflector produces a characteristic pattern due to the beam spread. This pattern
may be calculated, for a point reflector at a given depth, from the geometry of the
situation and corrected for in the manner shown in the Figure 8.3. From this pattern the
time shifts required to correlate the signals from the point reflector for the A-scans in
which the signals were recorded can be calculated. If the appropriate time shifted A-
scans for a particular depth are then summed a large signal will be obtained where there
is a genuine reflector, otherwise the resultant signal will be small. Thus in the output
image only signals will appear when the centre of the probe beam is reflected and all the
off axis signals from the probe will disappear. In figure 8.3 an almost point reflector is

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shown for illustration, but in practise the flaw will have length. The SAFT process works
just the same and only signals along the length of the flaw will remain after SAFT.
The lateral extent of the reflector can then be accurately determined by carrying out 6 dB
drop sizing on the resultant signal. The signal-to-noise of the output signals will also be
improved since during the time shifting and summing process any random noise signal
will only be correlated on one A-scan. In addition since the signals are unrectified
random positive signals will be cancelled out by the negative going signals. Thus SAFT
will only be effective on unrectified data.
The time shifting and summing process described above must be carried out for every
point in the image, and therefore a considerable amount of processing time is required.
The time shifting algorithm depends on the depth of the point and is carried out over the
user defined aperture of the probe, i.e. a specific number of A-scans. This aperture size
can be derived from the recorded B-scan and is the number of A-scans over which
signals are observable as the probes scan over a reflector.
Figure 8.3 The SAFT Process
There are two geometrical situations with TOFD, parallel and non-parallel and since
the algorithm is slightly different for each type it is important to specify the correct type in
the file header.

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Thus for TOFD data, SAFT is used to improve the accuracy with which the flaw length
can measured and to clean up and simplify complex situations. Signals from genuine
reflectors will be reinforced and the hyperbolic wing shapes will disappear. Also the
amplitude of random noise signals will be greatly reduced. The same applies to mode
converted signals since they will have a different velocity and characteristic pattern.
SAFT can therefor be useful for cleaning up complicated images e.g. cloud of porosity or
flaws near to each other. However, many interpreters prefer to work with the raw TOFD
data and use the parabolic cursor as an alternative to SAFT processing.
8.5 Split Spectrum Processing
Split Spectrum Processing (SSP) is a non-linear digital processing technique developed

by Newhouse et al. (Ultrasonics 20, 59-68,1982) which can produce considerable
improvements in signal-to-noise in ultrasonic images collected from large grained
materials. Very often the scattering from large grained materials can swamp out the
signal from defects and hence make the inspection very difficult. The method is
analogous to a kind of filtering and in many materials if carried out with care, and if
suitable broad band probes are used, considerable improvements can be made. The
improvement with austenitic materials is not always so clear since they can exhibit a
considerable degree of crystal alignment giving anisotropic properties.
Basically the idea is that the signal from a defect will be present at all frequencies of the
transducer spectrum but the sound scattered from the grains will have a frequency
dependence. This is because the scattering from the grains will interfere and cause
destructive and constructive addition of the signals. The technique consists of taking the
frequency spectrum of the signals for each A-scan and splitting the bandwidth into a
large number (40 or 50) of windows with suitable normalisation to allow for the
variation of energy with frequency in the ultrasonic beam. The idea of Newhouse et al
was then to choose the window with the lowest amplitude (minimisation of squares of
amplitude) and reconstruct the signal using this window. The thought was that because
the amplitude was the minimum there would be no noise from the grains , only the defect
signal.
8.6 Locus plots
By carrying out a number of non-parallel scans with different probe positions or

separations the position of an indication can be found by plotting the locus of points
corresponding to the time-of-arrival of the diffraction signal from the indication for each
scan. The position of the indication is where the loci cross each other. This approach is
more often used when inspecting complex geometry samples where access may be
limited. Modelling algorithms are generally available for the drawing of locus curves for
the geometry of interest and for the analysis of possible mode converted signals.

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9. CURVED SURFACES AND COMPLEX GEOMETRY
9.1 Curved Surfaces
The TOFD probes may have to sit on a curved surfaces, e.g. pipes. For normal pipe
welds
the probes straddle the butt welds and are looking in an axial direction and the
curvature has little effect, but for the case of seam welds the curvature of the pipe
needs to be allowed for. The two situations of the probes on the outside of the pipe
and the inside of the pipe are shown in Figures 9.1 and 9.2 respectively.
Figure 9.1 TOFD Probes on Convex Surface
If the TOFD probes are situated on a convex or concave surface then the lateral
wave and back-wall echo will appear at the wrong depth with respect to the straight
line drawn through the index points of the two probes.
For the convex surface the lateral wave travels straight across the metal. Thus any
signals from defects above the straight line joining the two probes will appear after
the lateral wave and appear to come from the metal below this line. If defects are
suspected to be above this line then the probe separation needs to be reduced to
make the area of ambiguity as small as possible. One must be very careful if using
the back-wall as a calibration signal since its depth below the lateral wave (the
apparent surface of the metal) is D - x and this depth should be entered into the file
header if it is used as a calibration signal. In this situation it may be simpler to use
just the lateral wave and enter the velocity.
The height, x, of the surface mid-way between the two probes above the lateral wave
is obtained from the formula
2Rx - x2 = s2
where R is the radius of the outer surface, giving for x < s, x = s2/2R
Chapter 9 Curved Surfaces page 101

Sonomatic Ltd.
The resultant depth calculation will give the depth of a reflector with respect to the
lateral wave and the correct depth will be “the apparent depth” +x.
For the concave surface the lateral wave has to run around the surface of the metal.
Thus the lateral wave should not be used for calibration and if the back-wall is used
its depth must be entered into the file header as D + x. The resultant depth
calculation will give the depth of a reflector with respect to straight line joining the
index points of the two probes and the correct depth will be “the apparent depth” -
x.
Figure 9.2 TOFD Probes on Concave surface
9.2 Complex Geometry

The geometry of T-butts, Nodes and Nozzles, etc., can be very complicated and
access very difficult. The situation may be such that normal pulse-echo inspection is
impossible. In

Sonomatic Ltd.
Figure 9.3 Complex Geometry access to one Surface only
these situations it may be possible to carry out some kind of TOFD scan. However,
the data may be very difficult to interpret due to the large number of signals from
the geometry of the sample.
In these situations it is essential to either have a mock-up of the geometry or a good
ultrasonic modelling program. In the mock-up artificial reflectors should be inserted
to simulate possible defects and test scans carried out. Having understood the
patterns of signals obtained it may then be possible to tackle the real inspection.
Modelling programs are less expensive (once available) to run and give greater
flexibility in seeing what the effect of different parameters are.
scan around object, i.e. into the page
scan down the surface
leave one probe stationary and scan down the surface with the other.

Sonomatic Ltd.
Figure 9.4 Complex Geometry access to two faces
Because of the specialised nature of such work only a very brief discussion will be
given. Some illustration situations are shown in Figures 9.3 and 9.4.
Consider first the situation shown in Figure 9.3 were access to only one surface is
possible. On this surface pairs of TOFD probes can be mounted and a number of
possible scan patterns carried out,
If, as normally occurs in this situation, the defect is below the probes, and the angles
of the
probes have been chosen appropriate to this position, then diffraction signals will be
observed. However, when trying to locate the position of the defect tip there is a
problem
since it could be any where on the path of a locus of constant time as shown in the
figure. Thus it is necessary to carry out a second scan with a different PCS . This will
produce a second locus track and where the two cross will define the position of the
crack tip.
In the situation shown in Figure 9.4 two surfaces are available for placing the probes
on, and a scan could be carried out around the object using a pair of TOFD probes
as shown. The problem in such situations is usually the large number of possible
paths between the two probes, some of which may be entirely reflections from the
various surfaces of the object. In this case one is looking for a change in the pattern
and again determining the exact location of the defect tip may be very difficult.

Sonomatic Ltd.
10 REPORTING
Reporting the results of an inspection is generally reckoned to be a chore and as a

consequence is often badly done. But remember, this is what the client sees and the
judgement of the competence of the inspection is often based entirely on the report.
Thus it very important for future business to present a clear and understandable
report which identifies any problems in such a way that they can be understood by
someone not possibly familiar with NDT and TOFD in particular. The plant
engineer needs to know the location and size of any reportable defects and the
uncertainties on these measurements and be given guidance on the most probable
type of defect present. Remember the consequences of premature shut down of a
plant for repairs may very expensive indeed.
Below is given some general headings of what should go in a report. The details will
depend on the procedures operating in your own firm the standards which may apply
and the requirements of the client, which must be made clear before the inspection.
The headings are,
1) Introduction why inspection done
for who - clients name
where - location
time scale - dates
additional information- has it been done
previously
2) Scope of Work details of application - area to be examined
details of technique and applicable procedures
applied
3) Equipment and Personnel equipment used, description of reference
or calibration blocks (if used), probe
types, frequency, angles and separations
personnel
clients representatives
4) Datum Layout and Location References
datum for each examination (preferably with
sketches)
individual scan location details (preferably with
sketches)
5) Summary of Results and where Records stored
details of work scope achieved
tabulated results with indications of accuracy of
any sizes quoted
list of reportable defects, preferably with sketches
or actual plots of profiles in cross section of sample
if required details of digital records of inspection
to be given to client. List of file names and
Chapter 10 Reporting page 105

Sonomatic Ltd.
inspection location, details of medium stored

on
6) Hard Copy results if specified
if specified or need for clarity of report (e.g.
specific examples) produce hard copy. See that
clearly labelled and annotated. Preferably use
processed data of specific areas of interest that
clearly shows defects
7) Calibration Record/Checklists
records of calibration performed in accordance
with procedure
checklists
8)Conclusions and Recommendations
project overview, how it went , how much
achieved and problems
conclusions - clear and concise
recommendations - this is very important to client
but need to good have reasons for
recommendations, good idea to take advice from
client and own colleagues.
8) Data storage
the raw data should be stored on an optical disk
or some other suitable medium (depending on
client). Make two copies and store in different
locations. The client may request to keep one of
the copies.
Before presentation to the client the report must be read and approved by a
competent person.
Chapter 10 Reporting page 106

Sonomatic Ltd.
11 PROCEDURE WRITING
If you are required to write a procedure for an inspection there are a number of things to
be considered first and some suggestions are listed below.
a) Specification of requirements
obtain a detailed specification, if possible, from the client of the requirements and
criteria for reporting defects. Make sure you understand and agree with the
requirements. If no suitable specification forthcoming write down what you think
is possible and sent to client and try to get their agreement in writing.
b) Standards
make sure you understand any standards or procedures specified by the client and
that they are appropriate. If none specified you may wish to work to a specific
standard, so specify this.
c) Right Technique
consider other NDT techniques and try to decide which is most appropriate for
the inspection - take advice. If TOFD needs supplementary information, e.g.
pulse-echo, make sure you specify it and check availability.
d) Select appropriate equipment
choose equipment most appropriate. Chose probes and their configuration and
check that they give adequate coverage and sizing accuracy, optimise choice. If
available run any modelling programs to optimise choice and test suitability to
meet requirements.
e) Validation
depending on complexity of task and experience available for inspection task you
made need to carry out some preliminary tests. This may simply take the form of
obtaining a suitable block with artificial reflectors and carry out a few scans to
confirm choice of probes and assumptions made. However, if complicated
geometry, etc., it may be necessary to insist on more extensive trials or a full
validation (for which you should get the client to pay). In this case you may have
to make a mock-up of the inspection sample and insert appropriate artificial
reflectors to prove that the inspection is feasible.
f) Personnel Qualifications
check whether your operators need additional training
g) Customised Scanners and New Software
the inspection may need special customised equipment, i.e. special scanning
mechanisms and new software may have to be provided to handle this and maybe
provide new analysis facilities or reporting requirements. Check that this can be
provided and tested in time and get prices for doing all this.
Having done all the above you can sit down and write the procedure. Below are some
suggestions of some of the things that should be dealt with in the procedure. Hopefully
your company will have laid down detailed instructions for writing a procedure. In any
case the best way is to look at previous procedures written by your company, because
most of the routine matters will have already have been listed.
A) Scope describe scope and purpose and range of
application and whether general or specific
procedure
Chapter 11 Procedure Writing page 107

list standard/procedures applicable

B) Personnel Requirements qualifications/certification required
physical requirements - eye test
C) Equipment/Software specify type of equipment to be used

specify software for collection and analysis
D) Pre-Scanning Requirements
couplant
surface finish/cleaning requirements
general information requirements such as type of
weld, geometry, access limitations or any
information which may inhibit
inspection
temperature
marking of datum’s and weld numbers , etc.
check lists needed
E) Equipment checks specify equipment checks (linearity, etc.)
probe calibration requirements (index point, beam
spread, angle and frequency)
DAC Curves
sensitivity and signal-to-noise requirements
resolution checks
scanner calibration checks
F) Calibration define calibration requirements
define reference blocks to use
velocity and probe delay measurements
specification for probe frequency, pulse length,
beam spread
specification for signal averaging, signal-to-noise
and pulse repetition frequency
calibration of probe and set-up
gain setting
G) Procedure and Technique specific procedure applicable
describe technique
define scope of work
define datum convention
define sensitivity levels
define set-up procedure and selection of
parameters, PCS, frequency, angle, etc.
define operating procedure
details of systematic checks to be carried out
file naming convention and system for storing
inspection results
number of scans to be carried out and procedure
when supplementary scans required
software to be used for data collection and analysis
calibration requirements

details of system checks to be carried out

H) Data Processing /Interpretation
specify post inspection data processing and
analysis to be carried out and procedure for
interpretation of TOFD data
define limitations
I) Reporting define reporting requirements

12 EQUIPMENT AND PROBE CHECKS
12.1 Equipment Checks
Depending on the procedure and requirements of the client some or all of the following
equipment checks may be required. Most of the checks are based on the standard checks
in conventional pulse-echo and should therefor be familiar.
12.1.1 Screen Height Linearity

This check can be accomplished with a zero degree compression probe on an A2
calibration block or other suitable reflector. On the A-scan display obtain a 2:1 ratio of
amplitudes from two signals with larger at 80% FSH. Without moving probe adjust gain
to set larger signal successively at 100, 80, 60, 40 and 20% FSH and read of position of
smaller signal. The tolerance limit should be + or - 1 dB.
12.1.2 Amplitude Linearity

To check amplitude linearity obtain a reflection from a small reflector (e.g. 1.5 mm
diameter hole in A2 calibration block). Choose signal so that gain change required
covers range over which inspection is to be carried out. If change greater than 20 dB
check should be carried out over a number of 20 dB steps.
Adjust gain to obtain signal at 80% FSH on A-scan display then adjust gain by +2, -6, -
12, -18 and -24 dB and measure mean amplitude of each signal. If the deviation of the
amplitude is more than + or - 1 dB then take note.
12.1.3 Time Base Linearity

This check can be accomplished using the A2 or A4 calibration block and a zero degree
probe over the range to be used in the inspection. Obtain between 5 and 10 back-wall
signals over this range. Bring each echo in turn to 80% FSH and measure position of
leading edge of signal. Deviations of linearity of more than + or - 2% should be noted.
12.1.4 Probe Index Emission Point

This is a standard check which can be carried out on an A2 calibration block using the
100 mm quadrant. Move probe assembly to maximise signal and note position of probe
assembly with respect to slot at zero point on block.
12.1.5 Beam Angle

The beam angle of the probe assembly can be measured on several standard calibration
blocks. However it is not always easy with many TOFD probe assemblies since the sound
tends to reverberate in the shoe, and it is not easy to obtain a peak signal with the high
angles. An alternative is to set up two probes in the pitch-catch mode on a suitable block
and alter the separation until the back-wall signal is a maximum. The angle can then be
calculated from the separation and depth of the block.
Chapter 12 Equipment checks page 109

12.1.6 Beam Spread

Standard techniques can be used to measure the beam spread using side drilled holes in
a suitable calibration block. Again it is often very difficult with high angled TOFD probe
assemblies to do this. It may be necessary to measure the beam spread of just the
compression probe and then calculate the spread in the shoe and into the metal.
12.1.7 TOFD Combined Probe Delay

Set-up the pitch-catch probe arrangement and focus the beam on the back-wall of a
standard A2 calibration block. Set the back-wall signal at 50%FSH and note the phase
of the first half cycle of the back-wall signal. Without moving the probes collect a B-scan.
There are a number of ways of then measuring the combined probe delay.
i) Use the analysis facilities to measure the time of arrival of the back-wall signal
and from the knowledge of the PCS , thickness of the block and velocity
calculate the probe delay.
ii) If available use the calibration facilities to measure the time-of-arrival of the
lateral wave and back-wall signals, allowing for the phase difference, and from
the PCS and thickness of the block the probe delay and velocity will be
calculated. The velocity should be within 1% of the expected value.
iii) Very similar to (ii) but only measure time of arrival of back-wall and enter
velocity as well to enable probe delay to be calculated.
It is recommended that the measurement be repeated for a PCS of -10% and +10% of
the original value. If all three measurements give the same probe delay to within 0.1 µs
then satisfactory. If not then keep repeating the three measurements until required
tolerance obtained.
12.1.8 Sensitivity
This test is designed to detect any deterioration in sensitivity of the probe. Place probe
(without wedge) on standard A2 calibration block and maximise signal from the 1.5 mm
drilled hole. Adjust gain to give a low but clear signal (20% FSH) and note gain.
Increase gain until overall system noise or grass at same range as hole reaches same
screen height and not gain. The difference in gain is the signal-to-noise ratio.
12.1.9 Resolution
Generally a range difference of 2 to 2.5 wavelengths between two signals enables them to
be separately resolved. To check for the TOFD probes obtain a back-wall signal from the
pitch-catch arrangement from a calibration block. Alter the pulse-width and filter settings
settings to obtain the shortest pulse-train on the A-scan display. Three predominant half
cycles should be evident on the screen. Any lower amplitude half cycles should be at least
6 dB lower in amplitude than the lowest of the three predominant signals.
12.2 Probe checks
12.2.1 Material Velocity Measurement

To measure the material velocity a reference block of the same material is required with
parallel sides and thickness known to within + or - 0.1 mm. Using a zero degree

compression probe measure the time between repeat back-wall signals. Repeat the
measurement two more times. The measurements should be consistent to within + or -
2%.
12.2.2 Probe Frequency

The best way of obtaining the probe frequency is to obtain a reflection from a small
reflector and then to carry out a Fourier Transform to obtain the frequency spectrum. If
such facilities are not available measure the time interval over as many periods of the
signal as possible. If the measured frequency is more than 25% from the expected value
check the filter and pulse-width settings and the attenuation in the material. If the
frequency is considered to low change the probe.
12.2.3 Probe Pulse Length

Measure the pulse length similar to the method of measuring the frequency. The length is
defined as the time between the start and end of the signal when the amplitude reaches
10% of the maximum amplitude. If the length is larger than expected check the filter and
pulse-length settings. If the length is to long to give the required resolution change the
probe.
12.3 Check of Attenuation in Material
In standard pulse-echo examinations there are standard procedures for checking the test
material for attenuation and deriving transfer functions and DAC curves which allow for
additional attenuation compared to the calibration block. For example for angled
probes one method involves using two identical probes in the pitch and catch mode as
follows,
i) The probes are set up on the calibration block with a “V” path for
looking at the backwall signal. The probe positions are adjusted to give
maximum echo height and the gain noted. This procedure is repeated
for 4 transverses of the block with the sound beam (“W” path) and for
6 transverses.
ii) The above exercise is repeated on the material under test.
iii) The curves of gain versus range are plotted for the calibration block
and material. Any additional gain required for the inspection of the
material can now be obtained from the difference in gain at the
required range.
When using the TOFD technique the gain is generally set up (see Section 5) either with
reference to the signal from slots in a test block or by setting the general noise or “grass”
level when the probes are placed about the weld to be inspected. The latter method
clearly takes into some account of the attenuation or any coarse grain structure present
since the backwall signal must be clearly visible and provided it is saturated (i.e. greater
than 100% full screen height) the inspection can go ahead. If the noise level varies with
depth then either the inspection may have to be carried out with a lower probe frequency
or the inspection divided up into more depth zones (see Section 5).

When, however, the gain is set with respect to the signal from a slot in a test block the
possibility of additional attenuation or grain scattering must be checked on the actual
welds to be inspected. Any difference in gain over 2 dB must then be allowed for.
However, while this may appear to be a relatively simple check there are a number of
problems, i.e.
a) The additional attenuation may occur in either the parent material or the weld
metal.
b) When the probes straddle the weld in the pitch catch configuration monitoring
the backwall signal may not be reliable since, especially in the case of a double
“V” weld, there may be a rough surface or a large weld cap.
To simplify the problem it is recommended that first of all the test block with the
appropriate slots is made to be of the same thickness as the weld to be inspected. Then
using the probe separation to be used for the inspection the gain to give a backwall signal
of full screen height should be noted on the test block and at various positions along the
welds to be inspected. In addition the pair of TOFD probes should be moved transversely
as far as possible across the weld in order to give different path lengths through the weld
metal and to reflect the sound from different regions of the backwall.
If the gain required for the actual weld is consistent to say 3 dB for the transverse scan
then any difference over a 2 dB loss should be added to the gain to be used for the
inspection.
If there is a greater loss in signal when the probes are symmetrically positioned over the
weld then a check should be made to find out if this is due to undercut, excess
penetration or a weld cap. If this is the case then these readings need to be ignored.
Finally if there is a greater loss in signal amplitude when the probes are displaced to one
side of the weld then it is most likely that there is greater attenuation or a coarse grain
structure in the weld metal. If this is the case then this additional attenuation should be
allowed for. Also additional checks should be devised to try and verify the loss of signal
in the weld material.
In the case of excess attenuation a lower inspection frequency may need to be considered
and possibility the use of larger diameter probes (which may mean additional scans).

13. TOFD TRIALS AND VALIDATIONS
13.1 Introduction
TOFD has been used in inspections since about 1982 and the greatest evidence of its
practicability is the fact that its usage is increasing all the time in different applications
world wide. While initially it was mainly used as a sizing tool after flaws had been
detected by standard pulse-echo techniques it has now become very much a primary
detection tool as well. It is this reliability in practical applications and its increasing
usage which affords the main evidence of the importance of TOFD.
A considerable number of validation exercises have been carried out, including a
number of major trials on test blocks. The introduction of deliberately implanted defects
is very expensive and hence the number of defects examined is limited. However, even
with the limitation, the results of such carefully controlled trials are useful indications of
the capability of inspection technique to detect, size and possibly characterise defects.
In all the validation exercises carried out the TOFD capability has surpassed the sizing
capability of conventional pulse-echo techniques for determining flaw height. Some of
these exercises will now be briefly discussed.
Among the validations of the performance of the TOFD method has been several
“Round Robin” exercises which have been held over the past 20 years. The development
of the technique with these exercises has been in four phases,
Phase 1: To validate the technique as a successful defect sizing tool.
Phase 2: Confirming the technique as a rapid detection tool
Phase 3: Ascertaining its effectiveness in replacing older traditional

means of inspection
Phase 4: Development of acceptance criteria plus the continuing

development on projects such as complex
geometry’s and austenitic weld inspection.
The validation of the technique as a successful defect sizing tool was initially carried out
in the late 1970’s in the U.K. Welding Institute Collaboration program and its
confirmation as both a sizing tool and a detection tool continued in the major validation
exercise in the UK Defect Detection Trials in the early 1980’s. Further confirmation of
the sizing capability was provided by the studies undertaken by EPRI (Electric Power
Research Institute, USA). The reaffirmation of the power of TOFD was established
through the major PISC exercises in the 1980’s (PISC II) and in the late 1980’s (PISC
III).
Since 1974 the Joint Research Centre of the Commission of the European Community
has been involved in the Programme for Inspection of Steel Components (PISC) to
validate the capability of ultrasonic examination of thick walled pressure vessels for the
Nuclear industry. The tests were based on the ASME XI code of practice. The early
113
exercises based on standard procedures gave very poor results and the program has
shown the importance of advanced techniques to aid detection and sizing.
The emergence of TOFD as a preferred detection tool has been confirmed by validation
and trials in industry other than the nuclear industry, for example in the offshore industry
and the Dutch Welding Institute NIL project on the NDT of thin plates.
The increased application of TOFD has resulted in the production of the British
Standard BS7706 and the draft CEN Standard (pr. EN483 pt 6) which act as an
important baseline for the application of the technique. Further work is needed on the
definition of acceptance criteria. This is in essence being framed in the NIl acceptance
criteria project and these standards should provide confident increased utilisation of the
technique in the wider inspection field.
The aspects of the reliability of the ultrasonic inspections and in particular the aspects of
the work which can be used in the assessment of the failure probability has been an
important outcome of the above trials. In particular this was discussed by Temple
(1984) and in the book by Charlesworth and Temple 1989 with respect to its application
to the validation studies carried out in the U.K. Much has also been done in more recent
times on the effects of human error and other aspects on the reliability of inspection.
[Temple J.A.G., 1984, “Reliable Ultrasonic Inspection in Theory and in Practice :
Sizing Capability of Time-of-Flight-Diffraction,” 3rd European Conference on Non-
Destructive Testing, Florence, 15-18 October, 1984]
There is still research and development work being carried out to improve the
performance of the TOFD technique. For example Maurice Silk who originally
developed the TOFD technique at the AEA Technology Harwell Laboratory has
published two further papers. The first paper, Silk 1996 (a), discusses the probability of
detection of flaws with TOFD with varying levels of noise present. In the second paper,
Silk (1996(b), he discusses the performance for through wall sizing and flaw length
sizing. [Silk, M.G. 1986(a), “Estimate of the probability of detection of flaws in TOFD
data with varying levels of noise” INSIGHT (J. Of Brit Inst of NDT), 38(1`), 31-36
Silk, M.G. 1986(b), “An evaluation of the performance of the TOFD technique as a
means of sizing flaws, with particular reference to flaws with current profiles “INSIGHT
(J. Of Brit Inst of NDT), 38 (4) 280-287]
13.2 UK Defect Detection Trials
A very large exercise was carried out in the U.K. to compare the capability of 7 teams to
detect and size representative defects in thick steel plates organised by the UKAEA in
1983. The aim of the exercise was to provide information for a public inquiry into the
possibility of building a PWR in the United Kingdom. The trails have been described by
Watkins et al (1983 and 1984) and a summary of the TOFD work is provided by
Charlesworth and Temple (1989) while a review of the different techniques used was
given by Murgatroyd and Firth (1985). [Watkins B., Ervine R.W., Cowburn K.J.
(1983)(a) The UKAEA Defect Detection Trials (DDT paper No. 1) Br. J. Of Non-
Destructive Testing., 25(4) 179-185 Watkins B, Lock D., Cowburn K.J., Ervine R.W.
(1984) the UKAEA Defect Detection Trials on test pieces 3 and 4. Br J. Of Non-
Destructive Testing 26 (2), 97-10... Watkins B, Cowburn K.J. Ervine, Latham F.G.
114
1983(b), results obtained from the inspection of test plates 1 and 2 of the Defect
Detection trials (DDT paper No. 2) Br J. Of Non-Destructive Testing 25 (4) 186-192
Murgatroyd R.A. and Firth (1985). A review and further analysis of the results of the
Defect Detection Trials Int. J. Press Vessel Piping, 28 (1-5) 275-293]
In the trials there were four test specimens (three flat and one (No. 4) simulating the
nozzle inner radius of a PWR. The specimens were all of full reactor thickness and clad.
Plate 1 contained - 29 flaws, plate 2 - 16 flaws, plate 3 26 flaws and plate 4 20 flaws.
The inspection by the UKAEA team at Harwell was restricted entirely to the TOFD
technique while the UKAEA Risley team also used TOFD for sizing. For all the teams
the detection of defects was very good and the result for the clad side were particularly
important and encouraging. The results for defect through-wall sizing as measured with
TOFD by Harwell in plates 1 and 2 compared with the destructive results are
summarised in the following table
Plate Side Correlation Mean error Standard

with deviation
destructive
1 Clad 0.984 -1.4 2.5

1 Unclad 0.988 -1.3 2.0
2 Clad 0.896 1.6 8.6
2 Unclad 0.932 2.1 6.9
1&2 Clad 0.925 -0.4 5.5
1&2 Unclad 0.943 0.0 4.7
Even the worst Harwell TOFD results achieved a mean error of only 2.1mm. For the
clad side inspection of plate 1 the Harwell results are a mean error of -1.4mm with a
standard deviation of 2.5mm and a correlation coefficient of 0.984. These results are
better than most, but not all conventional inspections used in the same test block trials.
Plate 3 was designed to test the ability to detect and size sub-cladding cracks while plate
4 was designed to simulate the more complicated geometry of the inner radius. A mean
sizing error using TOFD for plate 3 of 1.0mm was achieved by Harwell and 0.6mm by
Risley with standard deviations of 2.6 and 2.0mm respectively. In plate 4 the mean
errors were 1.9mm and 2.8mm with standard deviations of 1.4mm and 6.1mm for
Harwell and Risley respectively. Full details of the Harwell inspection of these plates is
found in the papers by Charlesworth and Hawker (1984) and Stringfellow and Perring
1984
Charlesworth J.P. and Hawker B.M. (1984). “Inspection of the near-surface defect plate
(DDT3) by ultrasonic time-of-flight. Brit J. Of Non-Destructive Testing 26 (2), 106-112.
Stringfellow M.W. and Perring J.K. (1984) “Detection and sizing of inner radius defects
in DDT plate 4 (simulated PWR nozzle by the Ultrasonic Time-of-Flight-Diffraction
Technique”. Brit. J. Of Non-Destructive Testing 26 (2) 84-91
115
13.3 PISC II Trails
A programme for the Inspection of Steel Components (PISC-II) was carried out between
1981 and 1986 and constituted a more detailed examination of the best performance
under optimum conditions. The programme grew from PISC-I which was an
international programme aimed at establishing the capability of ASME Code Section XI
ultrasonic procedure.
Plate 3 in PISC II was an actual nozzle to vessel weld of a PWR and contained 43
defects. The Harwell TOFD inspection resulted (Curtis and Stringfellow (1986)) in a
through thickness measurement accuracy of within +2mm for half the defects or within
about 10% for the larger defects. Risley Nuclear Laboratories reported (Rogerson et al
1988) a mean size error of -1.3mm and a standard deviation of 7.0mm. When using a
mathematical model of the inspection geometry Risley (Poulter, 1988) and was able to
demonstrate that TOFD found a mean sizing error of -0.14mm and a standard deviation
of 3.0mm. These results, considering the difficult geometry are very encouraging.
Curtis G.J. and Stringfellow M.W. (1986). “Automated Inspection of PISC-11 plate and
the PWR inlet nozzle at Harwell”. Ultrasonic inspection of Heavy Section Steel
Components : The PISC II Final report pp 503-524 (Ed Nichols and Crutzen) Elsevier
Applied Science Publishers, London, New York.
Rogerson, A Poulter L.N.J., Clough, P. And Cooper A.g. (1988) “RNL automated
inspection of the PISC II PWR inlet nozzle (plate) Br. J. Of Non-Destructive Testing
30(2), 86-93.
Poulter L.N.J., 1986, “Signal processing methods applied in the ultrasonic Inspection of
PWR inlet nozzles NDT Int. 19(3), 141-144]
For plate 2 Harwell with the TOFD technique, obtained a mean through wall sizing error
of 6mm with an associated standard deviation of 13mm. For the nozzle (plates) the
mean error was 8mm with an associated standard deviation of 13mm.
13.4 PISC III Trials
PISC III was initiated in 1986 to evaluate the actual NDE capability of the structural
integrity assessment of safe-ends in nuclear power plants, as well as PWR steam
generator and surge line dissimilar metal welds. The specimens were typical of those
used in the nuclear industry and nozzle ends were stainless cladded at inconnel buttered
and dissimilar metal welds were made from inconnel. The PISC III Action 3 was
primarily concerned with dissimilar weld metals and Action 4 on austenitic welds.
The reports of the PISC III work has been largely published in a series of reports by the
Commission of the European Community e.g. EUR Report No. 20, 25, 33, 35.
The UK team consisted of representatives of Nuclear Electric plc, AEA Technology
(Harwell and Risley), FKI Babcock, Inspectorate OIS Power and Nuclear and Rolls
Royce and Associates. The performance of the UK team using pulse-echo for detection
and pulse-echo and mainly TOFD for sizing was amongst the best of all the participating
teams.
The sizing performance for the UK effort on Action 3 samples is given below. Assembly
24 is a mock-up BWR safe-end and assembly 25 represents a BWR safe-end welded to a
116
cast stainless steel piping end. Assembly 20 was based on a BWR nozzle with two inlet
nozzles on which were welded an inconnel safe-end at a position of stainless steel pipe
represented as Assemblies 21 and 22.
Assembly Through Wall Standard Mean Length

Mean Sizing Deviation, mm Sizing Error
error, mm
24 +1 4 07
21 +2 -4
25 -1 4 -13
For Action 4 on the wrought-to-wrought Assemblies 31 to 36 overall for all teams the
sizing performance was poor. The UK team had the best sizing performance overall, with
a mean sizing error of 0mm and a standard deviation of less than 2mm on through wall
sizing. The correlation coefficient was 0.8.
13.5 Other Validation Exercises
A large number of other smaller validation exercises have been carried out using
TOFD, all of which have demonstrated the advantage of using TOFD for through wall
sizing.
13.5.1 Welding Institute Collaborative Programme

Some of the earliest trials with TOFD were carried out in collaborative programmes of
work within the UK by the Welding Institute, the National NDT Centre at Harwell
Laboratory (UKAEA), and by the NDT applications Centre of the Central Electricity
Generating Board.
In phase 1 test block blocks made for carbon manganese steel plate with welds
containing 26 defects were used. The results (see Jessop 1979) are given below.
117
Mean Error Standard No. Of Defects

Deviation
Vertical cross section
positional error, mm 0.35 1.3 24
Length extremities % error 3% 7.7% 34 linear

defects
7.1% 40%
14 cluster
defects
Through wall sizing error,
mm -0.32 1.0 24
From these results it was concluded that TOFD showed a better accuracy for sizing than
other methods and an accuracy of +1mm could be expected.
In phase 2 14 specimens containing welds varying in thickness from 34mm to 94mm
were used. The results (Jessop et al 1982) are given below.
[Jessop T.J., 1979, “Size measurements and characterisation of weld defects by
ultrasonic testing. Part 1. Non-planar defects in ferritic steel, Report No. 3527/4/77
Welding Institute Cambridge.
Jessop T.J. et al, 1982, “Size measurements and characterisation of weld defects by
ultrasonic testing, Part 2. Planar defects in ferritic steel, Report No. 3527/11/81.
Welding Institute Cambridge.
.
Mean Error Standard No. Of Defects
Deviation
Vertical cross section
positional error, mm 0.56 1.8 25
Length extremities % error

5.6% 12% 43
Through wall sizing error,

mm 0.52 1.8 106
The TOFD results for through wall sizing were much superior to previous test with pulse-
echo and gave a mean error of 0.5mm with a standard deviation of 1.8mm.
Phase 4 of the work extended the work to more complex geometries. Size specimens were
manufactured and two specimens taken from scrapped structures were used. As usual a
number of cracks were inserted. In two T-butt welds detection of the defects proved to be
straightforward using TOFD and a sizing accuracy of a mean error of 0.1mm with a
standard deviation of 1.1mm was obtained (Cameron et al, 1983).
118
[Cameron R.F. et al, 1983, “Size measurements and characterisation of weld defects by
ultrasonic testing, Part 4. Report 3527/ /83, Welding Institute, Cambridge.]
13.5.2 Offshore Structures

A series of trials were carried out by the NDT Centre at Harwell (UKAEA) on the
suitability of TOFD for inspecting offshore structures such as H-notes, T-nodes and node
connections.
A series of trials on offshore structures was reported by Gardner and Bosselaar (1984)
[Gardner W.E. and osselaar H., 1984, “The inspection of offshore structures : defect
sizing by the Time-Of-Flight-Diffraction Technique”. Offshore Steel Structure
Conference, Netherlands Industrial Council for Oceanography, 23-24 October 1984] on
three specimens, a butt weld, a 90° T-butt weld and a section of tubular node with
various cracks. The destructive examination of the specimen verified than an accuracy
of sizing with TOFD of 1mm was consistently achieved.
Further underwater trials were carried out on offshore structures using divers and again
very good TOFD results were obtained with the destructive examination results (Newton
et al, 1986) [Newton K. Wein A.P and Hawker B.M, 1986, “Research into new methods
for detection and sizing of defects in subsea steel constructions. Underwater Technology
Conference 86p 89. (Ed T. Melligen), Norwegian Underwater Technology Centre,
Bergen, Norway]
13.5.3 Validation Work at the EPRI NDE Centre USA

The accuracy of several ultrasonic flaw sizing techniques has been measured using thick
walled mock-up simulating typical reactor pressure vessel weld and clad configurations.
The results showed that TOFD and the backward - scattering tip-diffraction techniques
were more accurate than the amplitude based techniques. The evaluation over a total of
50 intentional flaws gave the following results.
Mean Error, Standard deviation,

mm mm
TOFD -0.36 1.3

Backward-
scattering -0.9 3.7
Tip diffraction
Amplitude based -0.1 5.3

6dB-drop 3.1 13.6
50% DAC 8.1 12.8
20% DAC 2.3 12.0
20% DAC
with beam spread
correction
The TOFD technique gave the most accurate results.
119
13.5.4 NIL Project- Non-Destructive Testing of Thin Plate

In the NIL project at the Dutch Welding Institute on specimens 6 to 15 mm thick some
250 defects were examined by various techniques and destructively examined. The
project clearly demonstrated the advantage of TOFD, which combined high probability
of detection with a low false call rate, over radiography and manual UT. The TOFD
through wall sizing had a mean error of -0.1mm and a standard deviation of +1.1mm
(see Stelwagen, 1995) [Stelwagen U, 1995. “NIL Project : Non-Destructive Testing of
Thin Plate” document NDP 93-40, Netherlands Institute of Welding].
13.5.5 Evaluation of TOFD in a 350 mm test block, 1998

TOFD can meet the requirements in the ASME Code Case 2235 (Use of Ultrasonic
Examination in Lieu of Radiography) for examination of welds of pressure vessels whose
thickness is 4 inches or more. Code Case 2235 requires demonstration of the procedure
on a qualification block, of the thickness to be examined, with embedded flaws. Hence
Shinko Inspection and Service Co. Ltd and Kobe Steel have carried out an evaluation of
a 350 mm (13.5 inches) test block with 26 welding defects with the TOFD technique in
comparison with manual and automated ultrasonics and Radiography. The thickness of
350 mm is the maximum wall thickness of heavy pressure vessels for Oil Refinery use
that they need to inspect. One side of the test block was overlaid with 10 mm of cladding.
The main results are summarised in the table below.
Probability of Maximum deviation Maximum deviation Sizing, standard
Detection (%) (mm) of defect (mm) of depth deviation
location along weld location of defect length height
Radiography 54 12 can not measure 8 -
Manual UT 54 17 13 top , 21 bottom 19 29
Automated 54 19 can not measure 23 -
UT
TOFD 98 7 2 7 3
The TOFD technique is the best and has a high probability of detection and a high
accuracy for defect location and sizing
120
Blank Page.
121
APPENDIX 1 OFF-AXIS DEPTH ERROR
A1.1 Theoretical Derivation of Off-Axis Depth Error
Consider the situation for a non-parallel scan with the defect tip at depth dX offset from
the axis between the two probes by the distance X mm, and a transit time (neglecting
probe delay) of t µs (see figure A1.1). The range for a signal from the defect tip is given
by
ct = [(s + X)2 + dx2]1/2 + [(s - X)2 + dx2]1/2

where c is the velocity of the ultrasound.
The shape of the path with constant range (i.e. time) is an ellipse with the index points of
the two probes at its foci. Think of a loose piece of string with the ends at the foci. If a
pencil is used to hold the string taut and it moved along the string it would trace out an
elliptical path.
Figure A1.1 Ellipse - curve with constant time -of-flight
The general equation for an ellipse (see figure A1.1) is,

x2 +y2 = 1
a2 b2
where a and b are the distances to where the ellipse cuts the x and y axes respectively,
and the origin of the x,y co-ordinate system is at the centre of the ellipse.
For the constant path length ,ct, the equation of the ellipse is derived as shown below.
Consider the y axis to have units of depth, d, i.e.
Appendix 1 Off-axis depth error page 121

x2 + d2 = 1
a2 b2
Now on the depth axis for x = 0, d2/b2 = 1, i.e. d2 = b2 and the path length,
ct =2(s2 +d2)1/2 (the normal TOFD equation for a defect tip on the centre line between the
probes). Thus
b2 = d2 = (ct/2)2 - s2
Similarly on the x axis at d = 0 , x2 = 1, i.e. x2 = a2
a2
and the path length ct = (s + a) +(a - s) = 2a, (see figure A1.1)
therefor a = (ct/2)
and the equation of the ellipse is x2 + d2 =1
2
(ct/2) [(ct/2)2 -s2]
rearranging the equation, d2 = [1 - x2 /(ct/2)2] [(ct/2)2 -s2]
i.e. d2 = [0.25 - x2 /(ct)2] [(ct)2 - 4s2]
and if the depth is dx for an offset X dx 2 = [0.25 -X2 /(ct)2] [(ct)2 -4s2]
This expression represents an ellipse with the beam entry points as foci and path length
ct.
In order to estimate the depth error for an off-axis crack tip we need to consider for a
measured transit time the maximum depth and the minimum depth at which it could
occur, i.e. dmin and dmax (see figure 3.16).
The maximum depth, dmax , is at the deepest point of the ellipse, i.e. when X = 0
(dmax)2 = 0.25(c2t2 -4s2) giving the familiar dmax = [(ct/2)2 - s2]1/2
According to the equation of the ellipse representing the path for transit distance ct, the
minimum value for the depth, dmin is d = 0 and consequently the term (0.25 - X2/ c2t2)
must equal zero, i.e. X = ct/2. When d = 0 the edge of the ellipse is beyond the probe
and therefor represents an area not spanned by the probe and a defect in this position
could not be observed since it lies outside beam of nearest probe.
At the edge of the inspection coverage area X will be somewhat smaller than ct/2, i.e. a
fraction, f. Thus the ellipse position for dmin is when
X = fct and (dmin)2 = (c2t2 -4s2)(0.25 - f2)
The maximum error expressed as a percentage of the maximum depth is given by
(dmax - dmin)/ dmax = [(ct/2)2 - s2]1/2 -(c2t2 -4s2)1/2(0.25 - f2)1/2
[(ct/2)2 - s2]1/2
= [1 - 4(0.25 - f2)1/2]
= 1-(1-4f2)1/2

A1.2 Example of Variation of Depth Error with Off-Axis Distance
In practise the lower edge of the acoustic beam determines the maximum detectable
lateral position of a defect tip. If there is no information on the position of this edge then
the maximum error could be at X = s. The variation of the fraction f with the offset
distance X is quite complicated and the maximum value (at the edge of the beam) depends
on the probe separation and the probe parameters.
Take the typical situation of aiming the beam centres at 2/3D (D is the sample thickness).
Then for an ellipse with depth d = 0.5D (when the offset X is zero) the variation of the
fraction f with offset distance X (expressed as a fraction of the distance s) is shown in
Figure A1.2, and the corresponding percentage depth error (dmax - dmin)/ dmax in Figure
A1.3.
0.5
0.4
0.3
f factor
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
X - fraction of s
Figure A1.2 Variation of factor f with off-axis distance X at d=1/2D and s=2/3DTanθ
70
60
50
error (%)
40
30
20
10
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
X - fraction of s
s=2/3DTanθ

The fraction f increases linearly with offset distance X from zero at X = 0 to f=0.5 at X =
a (limit of ellipse - 0.5ct) while the depth error increasingly varies from zero at X = 0 to
about 70% at X = a. At the position X = s , f = 0.46 and the depth error is 60%. Thus the
depth error for an off-axis reflector can be very large.
Let us consider two situations, the first considers the depth error at the edge of the
ultrasonic beam and the second the error at the edge of a typical weld.
A1.3 Depth Error at Edge of Ultrasonic Beam
A1.3.1 General Situation
Let us consider the general case where the reflector is at the edge of the beam. Let half
the probe-centre-separation, s, be related to the depth of the sample, i.e. s = uD , and
the path length when X = 0 at a depth ,d, is thus given by
ct = 2(d2 + s2)0.5 = 2D2(v2 + u2)0.5
where d is related to the depth of sample by d = vD.
Then edge of the beam at depth d, is given by
X = s - d*tan(ϕ),
where ϕ is the angle of the lower edge of the beam of ultrasound as shown in Figure A1.4.
It is assumed that any indications are in the far-field of the probes and that the ultrasonic
beam can be described by a divergent beam emerging from the probe index points.
Figure A1.4 Definition of X at lower beam angle
Hence f = x/ct = D(u - vtan(ϕ))/2D(v2 + u2)0.5 = (u - vtan(ϕ))/2(v2 + u2)0.5

Let us consider two situations, the first with the beam centres aimed at 2/3 D and
secondly with the beam centres aimed at the back wall.
A1.3.2 When Beam Centres aimed at 2/3 Depth of Sample

The procedure for working out the beam spread has been explained in Chapter 5. For the
most typical situation of a 60 degree probe of 5 MHz and 6 mm crystal diameter the lower
beam angle, ϕ, is about 45 degrees for a beam edge cut-off of 10 dB.
At the standard probe separation with s = 2/3Dtan(60), and at a depth of half of the
sample thickness, the quantities derived in the last section are,
u = 2tan(60)/3 = 1.154 and v = 0.5.
Similarly at d = D, v = 1. The corresponding values for the fraction f and the depth error
are shown in the Table.
Depth f error % at beam edge

0.5D 0.26 14.6
2/3D 0.18 7.0
D 0.05 0.5
Table A1.1 Depth errors at edge of beam for s = 2/3Dtan60
The variation of f and the depth error as a function of the depth are shown in Figures
A1.5 and A1.6.
0.5
0.4
0.3
f factor
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
depth - fraction of thickness
Figure A1.5 Variation of factor f with depth at edge of beam for s=2/3DTanθ
60
50
40
error (%)
30
20
10
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Figure A1.6 Depth error at edge of beam for s = 2/3DTanθ
It can be seen from the figures that f and consequently the depth error decreases with
increasing depth. Near the upper surface , however , the maximum depth error at the
beam edge is very large, but at the 2/3 depth it is typically 7%.
A1.3.3 When Beam Centres aimed at Backwall
With the beam centres aimed at the backwall s = Dtan(60) and hence, u = tan(60) = 1.73
and at the backwall v = 1. The corresponding values for the fraction f and the depth error
Depth f error (%) at beam edge

0.5D .34 27
2/3D .29 18.1
D .18 6.9
Table A1.2 Depth errors at edge of beam for s = Dtan60
The variation of f and depth error as a function of depth are shown in Figures A1.7 and
A1.8.
0.5
0.4
0.3
f factor
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Figure A1.7 Variation of factor f with depth at edge of beam for s = DTanθ

70
60
50
error (%)
40
30
20
10
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Figure A1.8 Depth error at edge of beam for s = DTanθ
As before the depth error decreases with increasing depth, and the maximum error is
large near the upper surface. At the backwall the maximum depth error is 7%.
A1.4 Depth Error at Edge of Weld
A1.4.1 Single ‘V’ Weld

The more realistic maximum depth error will be at the edge of the weld, since most flaws
occur in the weld. For the case of a single ‘V’ weld inspected from the top surface the X
co-ordinate at the edge of the weld at depth below the surface ,d, is given for a total
included weld angle of 60° and s = 2/3Dtan(60) by
X = (D - d)tan(30)
Figures A1.9 and A1.10 plot the fraction f and the corresponding depth error as a
function of depth into the sample.
0.25
0.2
0.15
f factor
0.1
0.05
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
2/3DTan(60)

12
10
error (%)
6
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
2/3DTan(60)
Thus for a single ‘V’ weld the maximum error is on the edge of the weld near to the top
surface and is 10%. The error at the edge of the weld rapidly decreases and in the bottom
half of the weld the error is less than 3%, becoming zero at the root.
A1.4.2 Double ‘V’ Weld

For a double ‘V’ weld with the ‘V’ at the centre of the weld and an included angle of 60°
and s = 2/3Dtan(60) the edge of the weld in the top half of the sample is at
X = (0.5D - d)tan(30) and in the bottom half X = (d - 0.5D)tan(30).
The fraction f and the depth error at the edge of the weld are shown in figures A1.11 and
A1.12 respectively.
0.14
0.12
0.1
0.08
f factor
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
-0.02 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Figure A1.11 Variation of factor f at edge of a double ‘V’ weld (included angle 60°) for s =
2/3DTan(60)

3.5
3
2.5
2
error (%)
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
2/3DTan(60)
For the double ‘V’ weld the maximum depth error is at the top surface of about 3% and
the error decreases to zero at the centre of the sample and then increases to just under
2% at the bottom surface. Over the majority of the depth the maximum error at the edge
of the weld is less than 1%.
A1.5 Conclusions
General
There is considerable variation in the maximum depth error with a non-parallel TOFD
scan. The error increases non-linearly from 0% for indications on the centre line between
the two probes to 60% or greater at s (half the probe-centre-separation). Thus in theory
large errors are possible for the measurement of depth for off-axis indications. The
calculation of the error is complex and depends on the off-axis distance, the depth of the
indication and the probe-centre-separation. To put this into context the situations where
the indication may be at the edge of the ultrasonic beam or restricted to the edge of the
weld are considered.
Maximum Depth Error at Edge of Ultrasonic Beam.

Consider the situation where the indication could be anywhere in the beam coverage of
the TOFD probes. The maximum depth error will occur along the lower edge of the
ultrasonic beam.
For the general case where the beam centres are aimed at 2/3 the sample thickness and
60° probe shoes, 6 mm diameter, and a frequency of 5MHz are used then at the beam
edge ( 10 dB cut-off)the maximum error will vary from greater than 60% at the near
surface to 0.5% at the far surface. At the 2/3 depth the fraction f = 0.18 and the error is
7%.
The situation when looking for weld root erosion in the heat effected zone or at the edge
of a double ‘V’ weld is a more specific situation. In this case the probes are aimed at the
backwall (s = Dtan(θ)) and it has been seen that at the edge of the beam on the backwall f
= .18 and the depth error is 7%. For a 20 dB cut-off of the beam edge the f value rises to

.21 and the depth error to 9.4%. Thus a typical value for f in this situation is 0.2, i.e. X =
0.2ct which gives a maximum depth error of
(dmax - dmin)/ dmax = 1-(1-4f2)1/2 = 1-(1-0.16)1/2 = 1 - .92 = .08 = 8%
Thus for an off-axis reflector for a sample of the thickness 25 mm the maximum depth
error on the backwall is 2 mm.
Maximum Depth Error at Edge of Weld

If it can be assumed that any likely flaws are restricted to the volume of the weld being
inspected than the maximum depth error will be when the flaw is on the weld edge. We
consider the situations for a single ‘V’ weld (included angle 60°) and a double ‘V’ weld
(crossover at middle of weld and both V’s having an included angle of 60°). Again it is
assumed the 60° 5MHz, 6 mm diameter, probes are aimed at 2/3 the depth of the sample.
For the single ‘V’ weld the maximum depth error along the edge of the weld varies from
10% at the top surface to zero percent at the lower surface. For the bottom half of the
weld the maximum error is less than 3%.
For the double ‘V’ weld the depth error along the edge of the weld varies from 3% at the
top surface through zero percent in the middle of the sample to 2% at the bottom surface.
Over the central 2/3 of the thickness the maximum error is less than 1%.
Overall
For the non-parallel scan the measurement of the depth of a flaw is not as accurate as with
the parallel scan technique. If the flaws are confined to the weld volume then for the much
of the volume the depth error is less than 3% for a single ‘V’ weld and less than 1% for a
double ‘V’ weld. The error at the edge of the weld at the upper surface will be worse than
these figures.
When the probes are aimed at the bottom surface the maximum error at the edge of the
beam at the bottom surface is 8%.

APPENDIX 2 DETERMINATION OF DEPTH FOR OFF-AXIS FLAWS

IN A NON-PARALLEL SCAN USING MODE CONVERTED WAVES
Anev and Yochev (1998) have suggested a method for the accurate determination of depth
for a non-parallel scan when the flaw tip is positioned away from the central axis. In
Chapter 3 it was explained that the basic assumption in the calculation of depth for non-
parallel scans is that the longitudinal diffraction signal from a tip is located on the
central axis between the two probes. Some idea of the extent of the errors when the tip is
off-axis have been given in Appendix 1.
The Anev and Yochev method consists of also using the mode-converted diffraction
signals to calculate the depth. As explained in Chapter 3 the TOFD technique normally
uses the longitudinal waves since they are easier to interpret. However, the TOFD probes
also produce and receive shear waves at about half the angle of the longitudinal waves.
Thus, as shown in Figure A2.1, for a non-parallel scan there are two options for
obtaining mode-converted signals. In the Figure the dashed lines represent the shear
waves.
Figure A2.1 Two possible positions for flaw tip when tip offset from centre line
In the first option the longitudinal wave from the transmitter (L1) diffracts from a tip at
depth, d, and offset, X, and is mode-converted to a shear wave and travels to the receiver
along path L2. Thus the total transit time, neglecting probe delays, is given by,
Anev A.A., and Yochev B.B., “Improving TOFD Accuracy by Utilising Mode-Converted
Ultrasonic Waves”, 1998, pp 297- 303. Non-Destructive Testing, An Eastern-Western
European Perspective. Edited by B. Bridge, A. Khalid and B. Yochev. Published by the
British Institute of Non-Destructive Testing.
Appendix 2 Depth from mode-conv page 131

TMC = L1/cl + L2/cs
where, cl = longitudinal velocity

and cs = shear velocity
This can be compared with the normal transit time equation when the total path is
longitudinal waves,
TL = (L1 + L2)/cl
Solving the above two equations to determine L1 and L2 gives,
L1 = (TL*cl -TMC*cs)*cl/(cl - cs)
and L2 = (TMC - TL)*cs*cl/(cl - cs)
The second option is that a shear wave (L11) from the transmitter is mode-converted at
the flaw tip with offset X1 and received as a longitudinal wave (L21). Now,
TMC = L11/cs + L21/cl
and TL = (L11 + L21)/cl
thus L11 = (TMC - TL)*cs*cl/(cl - cs) = L2
and L21 = (TL*cl -TMC*cs)*cl/(cl - cs) = L1
Now from the figure it can be seen that,
d2 = (L1)2 - (S2 + X2) = (L2)2 - (S2 - X2)
,where S is half the probe separation,

which from the above equations for L1 and L2 solves to give
X = {(L1)2 - (L2)2}/4S and = X1 = {(L21)2 - (L11)2}/4S
Finally it can be shown, knowing the velocities, that the correct depth can be worked out
from simply the arrival times of the normal longitudinal diffraction signal and the mode-
converted diffraction signal,
d = { (L1)2 - (S2 + X2)}1/2 = [{(L1)2 + (L2)2}/2 - S2 - [{(L1)2 - (L2)2}/4S]2]1/2
= [{(L11)2 + (L21)2}/2 - S2 - [{(L21)2 - (L11)2}/4S]2]1/2
Before the method can be used both the longitudinal tip diffraction signal and the
corresponding mode-converted diffraction signal must be recognised in the recorded D-
scan. Care must be taken since for example the mode-converted diffraction signal may be
hidden by the backwall signal.

APPENDIX 3 STEP BY STEP GUIDE TO A TOFD INSPECTION
A3.1 Data Collection
Below is given a suggested list of operations which should be carried out for an
inspection (it assumes that the AEA Sonomatic Microplus system is being used to collect
the data).
Select Probes and determine number of TOFD arrays and scans
1. Select probes - choose probe frequency and diameter as described in Chapter 5, and
select appropriate wedges (usually 60°) and using a small amount of coupling inset
probes into wedges.
2. Adjust wear plates according to direction of scan to be used. Wear plates should trap a
small volume of couplant as the probes are moved.
3. Use the AEA Sonomatic TOFD “Aids” package to check beam spread and decide
number of TOFD probe arrays and scans required for coverage of weld to be inspected.
Alter wedge angle, frequency and probe diameter to give best beam spread consistent
with reasonable time precision and signal resolution. If more than one scan different
probes may be required.
Set probe separation and connect cables
4. Check material to be inspected for attenuation loss. Examine parent material for
laminations and any thickness variation.
5. Normally for the first non-parallel scan set the probe-centre-separation using the 2/3
Depth focus rule between the probe index points. Otherwise set focus at depth
required.
6. Set up scanner if automated scanner being used. Alternatively if manual collection
using an encoder set the encoder wheel up appropriate to the scan direction.
7. Connect cables to collection equipment and probes. If pre-amp required (generally
recommended) insert in receiver probe line. If not clear which is receiver probe leave
pre-amp out (see later).
Prepare to calibrate probe set up and set up A-scan parameters
8. Place probes on a test block. For example a block of thickness representing the weld to
be inspected and with a number of slots open to the upper surface and of depths
covering the range to be inspected.
9. Switch on data collection equipment and select “TOFD data collection program” and
select “System Variables” and in resultant submenu select “Set up A-scan”.
10. Set the following A-scan parameters in order to get some signals on the A-scan
display,
Signal - set to unrectified
channel number - set Tx and Rx to channel numbers cables connected too
HT voltage - set to highest possible
Pulse width - set to obtain reasonable signals with minimum number of cycles
and ringing (usually about 100 nsecs)
Gain - set initially to about 70 dB
High and Low Pass Filters - set filters to encompass frequency spectrum of
probes, adjust to optimise signal-to-noise ratio
Appendix 3 Guide to Inspection page 133

Averaging - set to 16
Digitiser frequency - set to at least 5 times probe centre frequency (usually 64
MHz)
Calculate time scale over which collect data
10. Calculate time to lateral wave and longitudinal backwall signals,
time to lateral = 2s/velocity + probe delay
time to backwall = 2(s2 + D2)1/2/velocity + probe delay
2s - probe-centre-separation
D - depth of test block
probe delay - transit time in shoe (usually about 10 µs)
velocity - compression velocity in test block (e.g. 5.95 µs/mm)
11. Set range of A-scan displayed on A-scan display, using the “F” keys, to include time
scale from at least time of lateral to backwall waves.
Checks if no ultrasonic signals and connect pre-amp
12. If there are no signals check coupling, probes properly screwed into wedges, cables
and connections.
13. A test to see if both probes are equally responding is to set each probe in turn to both
transmit and receive (the pre-amp must be taken out of the circuit or it may be
damaged). For both probes the A-scan should be equally saturated. Reset to the
separate transmitter and receiver channel numbers.
14. If it is not clear which is the receiver probe for connecting the pre-amp then set the
channel number of the transmitter to be the same as the receiver channel. The A-scan
should be saturated. Disconnect the cables to each probe in turn. The removal of the
cable which causes the signal to disappear is connected to the receiver. Reset the
transmitter channel number and inset the pre-amp in the receiver line. Switch on pre-
amp and reduce the amplifier gain by about 40 dB.
15. Having obtained some satisfactory signals optimise the pulse-width, filters and
averaging. The greater the number of averages the better the signal-to-noise ratio but
the slower the rate of collection of data. Hence a compromise must be used. Usually
about 16 averages is adequate.
16. Check with the cursors that the lateral wave and backwall signal are approximately at
the calculated times. The lateral wave may be very weak and may need a very high
gain to recognise it.
Set region to be digitised and prf
17. Set digitiser start and width in “Set up A-scan” so that the collection gate (blue line
on screen ) starts just before the lateral wave and extends beyond the longitudinal
backwall signal. It is useful in the initial scans to extend the gate to include mode
converted signals up to the mode converted backwall signal (probably the largest
signal).
18. Set the pulse-repetition frequency (prf) to about 350 Hz if manually scanning with no
encoder. Otherwise set the prf to the highest possible value.
Fill in administrative details
19. Fill in “Report data”
20. Fill in “Set up data”, in particular the three entries
type of scan - parallel or non-parallel
probe-centre-separation
thickness of sample

Set gain
21. Adjust position of probes on test piece over a slot (top surface open) until signal from
bottom of slot optimum. Set gain so that this signal is about 60 % screen height,
consistent with the general base line noise level not being too high. Alternatively the
gain may be set by placing the probes on the sample to be inspected and adjusting the
gain so that the noise level between the lateral and backwall signals is about 5 %
screen height.
Prepare to collect data
22. The set up should be calibrated by either scanning over the test block described above
or on the sample to be inspected. This can be done by simply moving the probe array
manually using the “Free run” option.
23. Enter “Perform Scan”. The motor drive facilities panel first appears, ignore this by
pressing “Enter”. The “Scan Configuration Parameter” menu then appears. Enter
scan start as 0 mm and scan length according to how long the scan is. On the test piece
( which will be a parallel scan across the various slots) enter the total distance a
particular probe can move. If the calibration is to be carried out on the actual sample to
be inspected enter 50 mm. Enter 1 mm for the raster spacing and enter Yes for the
“Save Scan to Disk”. Set the collection mode to “Free run”. Press “Enter” and when
the file menu appears enter a file name. The final menu that appears before you can
collect the data is the “Report data” menu. Fill in any changes required and press
“Enter”. The computer starts to collect data at a rate governed by the prf, the number
of averages, the digitisation rate and the length of the collection gate. Move the probes
to match the speed of the data collection so that you approximately collect an A-scan
every millimetre along the scan. If the speed of collection is unsatisfactory alter the
prf, etc.
Analyse data collected from test piece
24. To analyse the data go to “Analyse Results”, then “Cursors” and select
“Parabolic”. For the scan on the sample to be measured see paragraph 26 below. For
the scan over the test piece with the slots carry on as described. In order to minimise
the errors use the calibration facilities to work out the velocity and probe delay. Set
the “Sample number at lateral wave” to zero and press “Enter”. A horizontal cursor
line appears on the displayed B-scan image of the data just collected. Move this to the
start of the first cycle of the lateral wave signal (note the amplitude reading at the cross
wire on the top of the screen) and press enter. The sample number is automatically
entered into the panel. Carry out the same operation for the backwall signal,
remembering to put the cursor to the start of the equivalent cycle with the opposite
phase to the cycle used for the lateral wave. Set the velocity and probe delay entries in
the panel to zero and enter “Okay”. The computer calculates the velocity and probe
delay. Check that they are reasonable values. If okay press “Enter”. If not “Escape”
and enter “File Management” and then “Show File Header”. Finally select “TOFD
Data” and check that the probe-centre-separation , thickness of sample and type of
scan are correctly entered. If they are entered incorrectly enter the correct values and
repeat the analysis. If the entries are correctly entered then go back to the start ( Step
3) and carefully repeat the whole process.
25. Having determined the velocity and probe delay check that the signals from the
bottom of the slots in the test piece are at the correct depths. The depths should be
within 0.5 mm of the correct depth. If this is not so the whole process should be

repeated until the depths are correct. The correct results must be verified by a second
scan with the depths being again within 0.5 mm.
Analyse data if calibration performed on sample to be inspected
26. For the calibration scan on the sample to be inspected enter the velocity and probe
delay into the “Parabolic cursor” menu and press “Okay”. The probe delay can either
be measured by noting the time to the transmitted signal when the probes are held face-
to-face, or by calibration on a test block as described above. Press “Okay” again and
then use the cursor to measure the depth of the backwall signal. The backwall signal
should be correct to within 1 mm. Repeat the scans until two consecutive scans are
within the required accuracy.
Calibrate encoder if using encoder alone or with a motorised scanner
27. In the situation whereby a motorised scanner is being used, from the “Set up
Variables” menu choose the “Choose Scanner” option. Choose the correct “.MOT”
file for the scanner being used and load it. Then choose the “Define Scanner” option
and set the various motor controls including velocity. Even if only an encoder is being
used this menu is used to define which is the positive direction of motion
(“Direction”).
28. When an encoder is utilised (with or without a mechanised scanner) the encoder must
be calibrated. To do this enter the “Calibrate” option and select the axis to which the
encoder is wired up to. The axis can be checked by selecting “Move Scanner” and
noting which axis registers a movement when the encoder wheel is moved. For the
calibration enter “Reset” to set the “Counts” to zero and move the encoder wheel a
known distance. Enter the distance in the “Distance” entry and enter “Okay”. The
appropriate gear ratio is worked out and stored so that the encoder motion is measured
in millimetres.
Prepare to inspect weld
29. Note datum position of start of weld inspection. If manual scanning mark with chalk,
etc., every 200 mm along the weld to help move the probes at a constant speed.
30. If the thickness of the sample to be inspected is different from the calibration test
piece alter the “Set up data” entry accordingly and set the type of scan to a non-
parallel scan. Re-calculate the time to the backwall signal. If thickness has changed
check digitisation gate still covers region of interest. If a motorised scanner or encoder
is to be used to monitor position then set the prf to be as high as possible.
31. Adjust wear plates according to direction of scan to be used.
32. Place probe array (and scanner) on weld to be inspected. Check that lateral wave and
backwall signal appear at the correct time.
Inspect weld
33. Enter “Perform Scan”. The motor drive facilities panel first appears, ignore this if
moving the probes by hand. If the scanner has a motor controlled by the data collection
computer then this facility enables the scanner to be driven to the start of the scan.
34. The “Scan Configuration Parameter” menu then appears. Enter scan start and scan
length according to where the start is with respect to the datum position and how long
the scan is. Enter 1 mm for the raster spacing and enter Yes for the “Save Scan to
Disk”. Set the collection mode to “Free run” or “Encoder” depending on whether an
encoder is used to measure position. Press “Enter” and when the file menu appears
enter a file name. The final menu that appears before you can collect the data is the
“Report data” menu. Fill in any changes required and press “Enter”. If the probes are

moved manually without an encoder then the computer starts to collect data at a rate
governed by the prf, the number of averages, the digitisation rate and the length of the
collection gate. Move the probes to match the speed of the data collection so that you
approximately collect an A-scan every mm along the scan. If the speed of collection is
unsatisfactory alter the prf, etc. If an encoder is being used nothing will happen until
the scanner is moved.
35. If the probes are moved manually with an encoder then if a region with bad couplant
is observed (disappearance of lateral and backwall signal) then the probes can be
moved back and the region re-scanned.
36. If the direction of the scan is in the negative direction then it can be changed to be
positive by choosing the “Define Scanner” option and change the “Direction” for the
axis to which the encoder is attached.
Check scan data
37. When the scan is complete check the quality of the data by playing back the data with
the “Analysis” facility.
38. If any couplant problems check the couplant supply, wear plates and surface finish of
sample.
39. If lines are missed when using an encoder check that the prf is as high as possible.
Otherwise reduce the load on the computer by going slower or by reducing the
averaging or the length of signal digitised.
End of shift or Inspection
40. At the end of the shift or inspection (which ever is shorter) repeat the calibration
procedure the same as at the start.
41. Log all files collected and make a backup of the collected files.
A3.2 Analysis
Display data
1. Enter “Analysis” and display file.
2. If the signals are faint enter ”View Control” and then “Contrast” to enhance the
weaker signals. If the data is compressed (axis has a blue colour) then use the ”Zoom”
facility in “View Control” to display relevant sections of the image on a 1:1 scale. The
“Scroll” facility enables you to scroll through the image with the zoom magnification
selected. If the lateral wave is very uneven it may be necessary to straighten it out as
described below.
Calibrate the scan
3. To obtain the probe delay and velocity for the scan select “Cursors” and then
“Parabolic”. facilities to work out the velocity and probe delay. Set the “Sample
number at lateral wave” to zero and press “Enter”. A horizontal cursor line appears on
the displayed image. Move this to the start of the first cycle of the lateral wave signal
(note the amplitude reading at the cross wire on the top of the screen) and press enter.
The sample number is automatically entered into the panel. Carry out the same
operation for the backwall signal, remembering to put the cursor to the start of the
equivalent cycle with the opposite phase to the cycle used for the lateral wave. Set the
velocity and probe delay entries in the panel to zero and enter “Okay”. The computer
calculates the velocity and probe delay. Check that they are reasonable values. If okay

press “Enter”. If not “Escape” and enter “File Management” and then “Show File
Header”. Finally select “TOFD Data” and check that the probe-centre-separation ,
thickness of sample and type of scan are correctly entered. If they are entered
incorrectly enter the correct values and repeat the analysis.
Measure depths and lengths of indications
4. Having determined the velocity and probe delay the depths of any indications in the
image can be determined with the cursor. Remember that the top of an indication
should have a phase opposite to the backwall and the bottom of the indication should
have the same phase. Position the cursor at the cross over point of the first cycle, after
allowing for the phase changes.
5. To assess the length of indications use the side wings of the parabolic shaped cursor.
The parabolic cursor represents the signal from a point source so if the parabolic cursor
follows the shape of the indication the indication has very little length (say less than 5
mm). However if the signals from the indication appear wider then position each wing
of the cursor in turn on the corresponding edge of the indication and note the position
along the x-axis. The difference in the two readings is the length of the indication.
Try and Characterise the indications
6. Try and make a guess as to the type of defect by following the logical reasoning
outlined in BS7706 and trying to estimate the position of the indication with respect to
the weld cross section
Design additional scans if required
7. If there is not sufficient information to carry out the above analysis then design
additional scans for collecting more information, i.e. parallel scans, more non-parallel
scans with different probe-centre-separations and maybe different probe frequency and
diameter.
A3.3 Processing the Data
Details of how to run the various programs is given in the User Guide.
A3.3.1 Lateral/backwall Straighten/Removal

1. If the lateral wave is uneven then it will look much better and enable more accurate
measurements to be made if it is straightened . Normally the straightening will be done
on the lateral wave but if surface opening indications are suspected the straightening
must be done on the backwall.
2. Using the displayed cursors in turn select for each side of a box a typical training area
of the lateral wave which appears flat. Then repeat the operation to select the extent of
the lateral wave which you wish to straighten. A new file will be automatically created
and displayed. The file name will be the same as the original image but the extension
will be .S00, .SO1 etc.
3. If the straightening is not entirely satisfactory keep repeating the process.
4. Very often an internal defect near to the upper surface of the sample will be hidden by
the lateral wave. This can often be revealed by, after suitably straightening the lateral
wave, subtracting an averaged lateral wave signal.
5. The lateral wave subtraction process is similar to the subtraction process, and if
required both can be carried out at the same time.

A3.3.2 Linearisation
1. Linearisation converts the whole image from a time scale to a depth scale. This facility
is especially useful when presenting images for reports.
2. Calibrate the data as when using the “Parabolic” cursor
3. The data is automatically linearised and displayed. A new file will be automatically
created and displayed. The file name will be the same as the original image but the
extension will be .S00, .SO1 etc.
A3.3.3 SAFT
1. The Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique transforms the ultrasonic data beyond two
near fields to a probe with a collimated beam of approximately half the current probe
diameter. Thus it can be used to determine length of indications more accurately and
also to clean up the picture and isolate overlapping signals (e.g. cluster of pores). Since
we can determine length usually adequately with the “Parabolic” cursor it is now
generally used to obtain a clearer image, since it removes the wings of genuine signals
and helps to remove noise.
2. Before starting use the cursor to measure the width of the wing from a typical signal.
This will give the number of A-scans over which the SAFT calculation should be
carried out.
5. The length of indications can be obtained by carrying out a 6 dB drop on the
echodynamic trace (see later).
A3.3.4 Examine A-scan display

1. In “Analyse Results” select “A-Scan View”. This allows any particular A-scan from
the displayed image to be plotted and measurements made if required.
A3.3.5 Select Part of an Image

1. In “File Management” select “Save Current Scan (partial)”. This option allows an
area to be selected from the image and stored in a file.
A3.3.6 Profiling
1. In “Analyse Results” select “Profiling”. This option allows with the cursor the
outline of an indication to be stored in a file. Provided the scan is done over the exact
same area additional profiles can be added to the file from subsequent scans. The
resultant profiles can be plotted on a depth scale. This is useful for displaying change
in an indication or for simply plotting out profiles, e.g. root erosion defects.

A3.3.7 Echodynamics
1. In “Analyse Results” select “Echodynamics”. This option allows the echodynamic
(maximum amplitude) trace to be extracted from the signal from an indication and 6-
dB drop sizing to be carried out. This is used after SAFT or on pulse -echo A-scans.
A3.3.8 Fourier Transform

1. Software is available to convert the image or parts of the image to a frequency
spectrum.

APPENDIX 4 PRINTING DATA

Two options are available to print data from the TOFD images (it is assumed that the
AEA Sonomatic Microplus system is being used to collect the data).
. One is to use the REPGEN program which runs under “Windows”, and the other is to
save the screen in the TOFD program using the “Prt Sc” key when the required display of
the data is on the screen.
A4.1 REPGEN
1. Select “REPGEN” program
2. Select “Print scan” and then “Print”. The option to select a printer will be displayed. If
the printer is correct select “Ok”.
3. In the “Page set up” option type in title for report. Select a BMP file which contains
the logo to be printed at the top of the output page. Select the drawing mode you
require and the number of copies and finally select “Ok”. If text has been added to the
file select the option to “Print text overlay”. Text can not be added in the REPGEN
program but must be added in the TOFD program.
4. In the “File window” select the directory in which the file is stored and highlite the file
to be printed. Multiple files can be selected by holding down the “Ctrl” key when
selecting the files. Select “Ok”.
5. The file is printed
6. If the greyscale requires more contrast select”Setup” and select the “Contrast” option.
Select a file and adjust the contrast.
A4.2 BMP File

1. BMP files can be printed for example with the “Paintbrush” program in “Windows” .
Hence select “Windows”, then select “Accessories” and finally “Paintbrush”.
2. Select the file open option and then select the directory and highlight the BMP file
name.
3. Select the Print option in the File menu and print the file.
Appendix 4 Print data page 141

Blank page

APPENDIX 5 TOFDAIDS SOFTWARE PACKAGE
Two examples of the TOFDAIDS package in the AEA Sonomatic Microplus system are
given below. Plots like this can be reproduced in a report by running the TOFDAIDS
software under “Windows”. Select the TOFDAIDS.BAT routine and select “RUN” from
the “File” option of a “File Manager”. Run the relevant program in the TOFDAIDS menu
(a detailed description is given in the User Guide) and press “Enter” to obtain a white
background for the displayed graphics output. Then to copy the output to the clipboard
press “Alt” and “Prt Sc”. The image in the clipboard can then be copied to your word
processing package with “Paste” in the “Edit” option.
An example of the beam spread for the inspection of a weld in a flat plate is given in
Figure 1.
plate in the TOFDAIDS package
The outputs are normally in colour, hence the current outputs in black and white are not
so clear. The beam spread plot shows in the shaded area the volume of coverage, and the
two near vertical lines (very faint) about the centre line represent the weld volume.

The second example in Figure 2 is an example of an estimate of the various errors in the
measurement of depth. The following errors are individually plotted - timing error, wrong
probe separation, variation in couplant depth, velocity of sound variation and error due to
the fact that the indication is displaced away from the weld centre line. The upper curve
is the overall error from all the individual errors.
from the TOFDAIDS package

APPENDIX 1 OFF-AXIS DEPTH ERROR
A1.1 Theoretical Derivation of Off-Axis Depth Error
Consider the situation for a non-parallel scan with the defect tip at depth dX offset from
the axis between the two probes by the distance X mm, and a transit time (neglecting
probe delay) of t µs (see figure A1.1). The range for a signal from the defect tip is given
by
ct = [(s + X)2 + dx2]1/2 + [(s - X)2 + dx2]1/2

where c is the velocity of the ultrasound.
The shape of the path with constant range (i.e. time) is an ellipse with the index points of
the two probes at its foci. Think of a loose piece of string with the ends at the foci. If a
pencil is used to hold the string taut and it moved along the string it would trace out an
elliptical path.
Figure A1.1 Ellipse - curve with constant time -of-flight
The general equation for an ellipse (see figure A1.1) is,

x2 +y2 = 1
a2 b2
where a and b are the distances to where the ellipse cuts the x and y axes respectively,
and the origin of the x,y co-ordinate system is at the centre of the ellipse.
For the constant path length ,ct, the equation of the ellipse is derived as shown below.
Consider the y axis to have units of depth, d, i.e.

x2 + d2 = 1
a2 b2
Now on the depth axis for x = 0, d2/b2 = 1, i.e. d2 = b2 and the path length,
ct =2(s2 +d2)1/2 (the normal TOFD equation for a defect tip on the centre line between the
probes). Thus
b2 = d2 = (ct/2)2 - s2
Similarly on the x axis at d = 0 , x2 = 1, i.e. x2 = a2
a2
and the path length ct = (s + a) +(a - s) = 2a, (see figure A1.1)
therefor a = (ct/2)
and the equation of the ellipse is x2 + d2 =1
2
(ct/2) [(ct/2)2 -s2]
rearranging the equation, d2 = [1 - x2 /(ct/2)2] [(ct/2)2 -s2]
i.e. d2 = [0.25 - x2 /(ct)2] [(ct)2 - 4s2]
and if the depth is dx for an offset X dx 2 = [0.25 -X2 /(ct)2] [(ct)2 -4s2]
This expression represents an ellipse with the beam entry points as foci and path length
ct.
In order to estimate the depth error for an off-axis crack tip we need to consider for a
measured transit time the maximum depth and the minimum depth at which it could
occur, i.e. dmin and dmax (see figure 3.16).
The maximum depth, dmax , is at the deepest point of the ellipse, i.e. when X = 0
(dmax)2 = 0.25(c2t2 -4s2) giving the familiar dmax = [(ct/2)2 - s2]1/2
According to the equation of the ellipse representing the path for transit distance ct, the
minimum value for the depth, dmin is d = 0 and consequently the term (0.25 - X2/ c2t2)
must equal zero, i.e. X = ct/2. When d = 0 the edge of the ellipse is beyond the probe
and therefor represents an area not spanned by the probe and a defect in this position
could not be observed since it lies outside beam of nearest probe.
At the edge of the inspection coverage area X will be somewhat smaller than ct/2, i.e. a
fraction, f. Thus the ellipse position for dmin is when
X = fct and (dmin)2 = (c2t2 -4s2)(0.25 - f2)
The maximum error expressed as a percentage of the maximum depth is given by
(dmax - dmin)/ dmax = [(ct/2)2 - s2]1/2 -(c2t2 -4s2)1/2(0.25 - f2)1/2
[(ct/2)2 - s2]1/2
= [1 - 4(0.25 - f2)1/2]
= 1-(1-4f2)1/2

A1.2 Example of Variation of Depth Error with Off-Axis Distance
In practise the lower edge of the acoustic beam determines the maximum detectable
lateral position of a defect tip. If there is no information on the position of this edge then
the maximum error could be at X = s. The variation of the fraction f with the offset
distance X is quite complicated and the maximum value (at the edge of the beam) depends
on the probe separation and the probe parameters.
Take the typical situation of aiming the beam centres at 2/3D (D is the sample thickness).
Then for an ellipse with depth d = 0.5D (when the offset X is zero) the variation of the
fraction f with offset distance X (expressed as a fraction of the distance s) is shown in
Figure A1.2, and the corresponding percentage depth error (dmax - dmin)/ dmax in Figure
A1.3.
0.5
0.4
0.3
f factor
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
X - fraction of s
Figure A1.2 Variation of factor f with off-axis distance X at d=1/2D and s=2/3DTanθ
70
60
50
error (%)
40
30
20
10
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
X - fraction of s
s=2/3DTanθ

The fraction f increases linearly with offset distance X from zero at X = 0 to f=0.5 at X =
a (limit of ellipse - 0.5ct) while the depth error increasingly varies from zero at X = 0 to
about 70% at X = a. At the position X = s , f = 0.46 and the depth error is 60%. Thus the
depth error for an off-axis reflector can be very large.
Let us consider two situations, the first considers the depth error at the edge of the
ultrasonic beam and the second the error at the edge of a typical weld.
A1.3 Depth Error at Edge of Ultrasonic Beam
A1.3.1 General Situation
Let us consider the general case where the reflector is at the edge of the beam. Let half
the probe-centre-separation, s, be related to the depth of the sample, i.e. s = uD , and
the path length when X = 0 at a depth ,d, is thus given by
ct = 2(d2 + s2)0.5 = 2D2(v2 + u2)0.5
where d is related to the depth of sample by d = vD.
Then edge of the beam at depth d, is given by
X = s - d*tan(ϕ),
where ϕ is the angle of the lower edge of the beam of ultrasound as shown in Figure A1.4.
It is assumed that any indications are in the far-field of the probes and that the ultrasonic
beam can be described by a divergent beam emerging from the probe index points.
Figure A1.4 Definition of X at lower beam angle
Hence f = x/ct = D(u - vtan(ϕ))/2D(v2 + u2)0.5 = (u - vtan(ϕ))/2(v2 + u2)0.5

Let us consider two situations, the first with the beam centres aimed at 2/3 D and
secondly with the beam centres aimed at the back wall.
A1.3.2 When Beam Centres aimed at 2/3 Depth of Sample

The procedure for working out the beam spread has been explained in Chapter 5. For the
most typical situation of a 60 degree probe of 5 MHz and 6 mm crystal diameter the lower
beam angle, ϕ, is about 45 degrees for a beam edge cut-off of 10 dB.
At the standard probe separation with s = 2/3Dtan(60), and at a depth of half of the
sample thickness, the quantities derived in the last section are,
u = 2tan(60)/3 = 1.154 and v = 0.5.
Similarly at d = D, v = 1. The corresponding values for the fraction f and the depth error
Depth f error % at beam edge

0.5D 0.26 14.6
2/3D 0.18 7.0
D 0.05 0.5
Table A1.1 Depth errors at edge of beam for s = 2/3Dtan60
The variation of f and the depth error as a function of the depth are shown in Figures
A1.5 and A1.6.
0.5
0.4
0.3
f factor
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Figure A1.5 Variation of factor f with depth at edge of beam for s=2/3DTanθ
60
50
40
error (%)
30
20
10
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Figure A1.6 Depth error at edge of beam for s = 2/3DTanθ
It can be seen from the figures that f and consequently the depth error decreases with
increasing depth. Near the upper surface , however , the maximum depth error at the
beam edge is very large, but at the 2/3 depth it is typically 7%.
A1.3.3 When Beam Centres aimed at Backwall
With the beam centres aimed at the backwall s = Dtan(60) and hence, u = tan(60) = 1.73
and at the backwall v = 1. The corresponding values for the fraction f and the depth error
Depth f error (%) at beam edge

0.5D .34 27
2/3D .29 18.1
D .18 6.9
Table A1.2 Depth errors at edge of beam for s = Dtan60
The variation of f and depth error as a function of depth are shown in Figures A1.7 and
A1.8.
0.5
0.4
0.3
f factor
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Figure A1.7 Variation of factor f with depth at edge of beam for s = DTanθ

70
60
50
error (%)
40
30
20
10
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Figure A1.8 Depth error at edge of beam for s = DTanθ
As before the depth error decreases with increasing depth, and the maximum error is
large near the upper surface. At the backwall the maximum depth error is 7%.
A1.4 Depth Error at Edge of Weld
A1.4.1 Single ‘V’ Weld

The more realistic maximum depth error will be at the edge of the weld, since most flaws
occur in the weld. For the case of a single ‘V’ weld inspected from the top surface the X
co-ordinate at the edge of the weld at depth below the surface ,d, is given for a total
included weld angle of 60° and s = 2/3Dtan(60) by
X = (D - d)tan(30)
Figures A1.9 and A1.10 plot the fraction f and the corresponding depth error as a
function of depth into the sample.
0.25
0.2
0.15
f factor
0.1
0.05
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
2/3DTan(60)

12
10
error (%)
6
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
2/3DTan(60)
Thus for a single ‘V’ weld the maximum error is on the edge of the weld near to the top
surface and is 10%. The error at the edge of the weld rapidly decreases and in the bottom
half of the weld the error is less than 3%, becoming zero at the root.
A1.4.2 Double ‘V’ Weld

For a double ‘V’ weld with the ‘V’ at the centre of the weld and an included angle of 60°
and s = 2/3Dtan(60) the edge of the weld in the top half of the sample is at
X = (0.5D - d)tan(30) and in the bottom half X = (d - 0.5D)tan(30).
The fraction f and the depth error at the edge of the weld are shown in figures A1.11 and
A1.12 respectively.
0.14
0.12
0.1
0.08
f factor
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
-0.02 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Figure A1.11 Variation of factor f at edge of a double ‘V’ weld (included angle 60°) for s =
2/3DTan(60)

3.5
3
2.5
2
error (%)
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
2/3DTan(60)
For the double ‘V’ weld the maximum depth error is at the top surface of about 3% and
the error decreases to zero at the centre of the sample and then increases to just under
2% at the bottom surface. Over the majority of the depth the maximum error at the edge
of the weld is less than 1%.
A1.5 Conclusions
General
There is considerable variation in the maximum depth error with a non-parallel TOFD
scan. The error increases non-linearly from 0% for indications on the centre line between
the two probes to 60% or greater at s (half the probe-centre-separation). Thus in theory
large errors are possible for the measurement of depth for off-axis indications. The
calculation of the error is complex and depends on the off-axis distance, the depth of the
indication and the probe-centre-separation. To put this into context the situations where
the indication may be at the edge of the ultrasonic beam or restricted to the edge of the
weld are considered.
Maximum Depth Error at Edge of Ultrasonic Beam.

Consider the situation where the indication could be anywhere in the beam coverage of
the TOFD probes. The maximum depth error will occur along the lower edge of the
ultrasonic beam.
For the general case where the beam centres are aimed at 2/3 the sample thickness and
60° probe shoes, 6 mm diameter, and a frequency of 5MHz are used then at the beam
edge ( 10 dB cut-off)the maximum error will vary from greater than 60% at the near
surface to 0.5% at the far surface. At the 2/3 depth the fraction f = 0.18 and the error is
7%.
The situation when looking for weld root erosion in the heat effected zone or at the edge
of a double ‘V’ weld is a more specific situation. In this case the probes are aimed at the
backwall (s = Dtan(θ)) and it has been seen that at the edge of the beam on the backwall f
= .18 and the depth error is 7%. For a 20 dB cut-off of the beam edge the f value rises to

.21 and the depth error to 9.4%. Thus a typical value for f in this situation is 0.2, i.e. X =
0.2ct which gives a maximum depth error of
(dmax - dmin)/ dmax = 1-(1-4f2)1/2 = 1-(1-0.16)1/2 = 1 - .92 = .08 = 8%
Thus for an off-axis reflector for a sample of the thickness 25 mm the maximum depth
error on the backwall is 2 mm.
Maximum Depth Error at Edge of Weld

If it can be assumed that any likely flaws are restricted to the volume of the weld being
inspected than the maximum depth error will be when the flaw is on the weld edge. We
consider the situations for a single ‘V’ weld (included angle 60°) and a double ‘V’ weld
(crossover at middle of weld and both V’s having an included angle of 60°). Again it is
assumed the 60° 5MHz, 6 mm diameter, probes are aimed at 2/3 the depth of the sample.
For the single ‘V’ weld the maximum depth error along the edge of the weld varies from
10% at the top surface to zero percent at the lower surface. For the bottom half of the
weld the maximum error is less than 3%.
For the double ‘V’ weld the depth error along the edge of the weld varies from 3% at the
top surface through zero percent in the middle of the sample to 2% at the bottom surface.
Over the central 2/3 of the thickness the maximum error is less than 1%.
Overall
For the non-parallel scan the measurement of the depth of a flaw is not as accurate as with
the parallel scan technique. If the flaws are confined to the weld volume then for the much
of the volume the depth error is less than 3% for a single ‘V’ weld and less than 1% for a
double ‘V’ weld. The error at the edge of the weld at the upper surface will be worse than
these figures.
When the probes are aimed at the bottom surface the maximum error at the edge of the
beam at the bottom surface is 8%.

APPENDIX 2 DETERMINATION OF DEPTH FOR OFF-AXIS FLAWS

IN A NON-PARALLEL SCAN USING MODE CONVERTED WAVES
Anev and Yochev (1998) have suggested a method for the accurate determination of depth
for a non-parallel scan when the flaw tip is positioned away from the central axis. In
Chapter 3 it was explained that the basic assumption in the calculation of depth for non-
parallel scans is that the longitudinal diffraction signal from a tip is located on the
central axis between the two probes. Some idea of the extent of the errors when the tip is
off-axis have been given in Appendix 1.
The Anev and Yochev method consists of also using the mode-converted diffraction
signals to calculate the depth. As explained in Chapter 3 the TOFD technique normally
uses the longitudinal waves since they are easier to interpret. However, the TOFD probes
also produce and receive shear waves at about half the angle of the longitudinal waves.
Thus, as shown in Figure A2.1, for a non-parallel scan there are two options for
obtaining mode-converted signals. In the Figure the dashed lines represent the shear
waves.
Figure A2.1 Two possible positions for flaw tip when tip offset from centre line
In the first option the longitudinal wave from the transmitter (L1) diffracts from a tip at
depth, d, and offset, X, and is mode-converted to a shear wave and travels to the receiver
along path L2. Thus the total transit time, neglecting probe delays, is given by,
Anev A.A., and Yochev B.B., “Improving TOFD Accuracy by Utilising Mode-Converted
Ultrasonic Waves”, 1998, pp 297- 303. Non-Destructive Testing, An Eastern-Western
European Perspective. Edited by B. Bridge, A. Khalid and B. Yochev. Published by the
British Institute of Non-Destructive Testing.

TMC = L1/cl + L2/cs
where, cl = longitudinal velocity

and cs = shear velocity
This can be compared with the normal transit time equation when the total path is
longitudinal waves,
TL = (L1 + L2)/cl
Solving the above two equations to determine L1 and L2 gives,
L1 = (TL*cl -TMC*cs)*cl/(cl - cs)
and L2 = (TMC - TL)*cs*cl/(cl - cs)
The second option is that a shear wave (L11) from the transmitter is mode-converted at
the flaw tip with offset X1 and received as a longitudinal wave (L21). Now,
TMC = L11/cs + L21/cl
and TL = (L11 + L21)/cl
thus L11 = (TMC - TL)*cs*cl/(cl - cs) = L2
and L21 = (TL*cl -TMC*cs)*cl/(cl - cs) = L1
Now from the figure it can be seen that,
d2 = (L1)2 - (S2 + X2) = (L2)2 - (S2 - X2)
,where S is half the probe separation,

which from the above equations for L1 and L2 solves to give
X = {(L1)2 - (L2)2}/4S and = X1 = {(L21)2 - (L11)2}/4S
Finally it can be shown, knowing the velocities, that the correct depth can be worked out
from simply the arrival times of the normal longitudinal diffraction signal and the mode-
converted diffraction signal,
d = { (L1)2 - (S2 + X2)}1/2 = [{(L1)2 + (L2)2}/2 - S2 - [{(L1)2 - (L2)2}/4S]2]1/2
= [{(L11)2 + (L21)2}/2 - S2 - [{(L21)2 - (L11)2}/4S]2]1/2
Before the method can be used both the longitudinal tip diffraction signal and the
corresponding mode-converted diffraction signal must be recognised in the recorded D-
scan. Care must be taken since for example the mode-converted diffraction signal may be
hidden by the backwall signal.

APPENDIX 3 STEP BY STEP GUIDE TO A TOFD INSPECTION
A3.1 Data Collection
Below is given a suggested list of operations which should be carried out for an
inspection (it assumes that the AEA Sonomatic Microplus system is being used to collect
the data).
Select Probes and determine number of TOFD arrays and scans
11. Select probes - choose probe frequency and diameter as described in Chapter 5, and
select appropriate wedges (usually 60°) and using a small amount of coupling inset
probes into wedges.
12. Adjust wear plates according to direction of scan to be used. Wear plates should trap
a small volume of couplant as the probes are moved.
13. Use the AEA Sonomatic TOFD “Aids” package to check beam spread and decide
number of TOFD probe arrays and scans required for coverage of weld to be inspected.
Alter wedge angle, frequency and probe diameter to give best beam spread consistent
with reasonable time precision and signal resolution. If more than one scan different
probes may be required.
Set probe separation and connect cables
14. Check material to be inspected for attenuation loss. Examine parent material for
laminations and any thickness variation.
15. Normally for the first non-parallel scan set the probe-centre-separation using the 2/3
Depth focus rule between the probe index points. Otherwise set focus at depth
required.
16. Set up scanner if automated scanner being used. Alternatively if manual collection
using an encoder set the encoder wheel up appropriate to the scan direction.
17. Connect cables to collection equipment and probes. If pre-amp required (generally
recommended) insert in receiver probe line. If not clear which is receiver probe leave
pre-amp out (see later).
Prepare to calibrate probe set up and set up A-scan parameters
18. Place probes on a test block. For example a block of thickness representing the weld
to be inspected and with a number of slots open to the upper surface and of depths
covering the range to be inspected.
19. Switch on data collection equipment and select “TOFD data collection program”
and select “System Variables” and in resultant submenu select “Set up A-scan”.
20. Set the following A-scan parameters in order to get some signals on the A-scan
display,
Signal - set to unrectified
channel number - set Tx and Rx to channel numbers cables connected too
HT voltage - set to highest possible
Pulse width - set to obtain reasonable signals with minimum number of cycles
and ringing (usually about 100 nsecs)
Gain - set initially to about 70 dB
High and Low Pass Filters - set filters to encompass frequency spectrum of
probes, adjust to optimise signal-to-noise ratio

Averaging - set to 16
Digitiser frequency - set to at least 5 times probe centre frequency (usually 64
MHz)
Calculate time scale over which collect data
11. Calculate time to lateral wave and longitudinal backwall signals,
time to lateral = 2s/velocity + probe delay
time to backwall = 2(s2 + D2)1/2/velocity + probe delay
2s - probe-centre-separation
D - depth of test block
probe delay - transit time in shoe (usually about 10 µs)
velocity - compression velocity in test block (e.g. 5.95 µs/mm)
33. Set range of A-scan displayed on A-scan display, using the “F” keys, to include time
scale from at least time of lateral to backwall waves.
Checks if no ultrasonic signals and connect pre-amp
34. If there are no signals check coupling, probes properly screwed into wedges, cables
and connections.
35. A test to see if both probes are equally responding is to set each probe in turn to both
transmit and receive (the pre-amp must be taken out of the circuit or it may be
damaged). For both probes the A-scan should be equally saturated. Reset to the
separate transmitter and receiver channel numbers.
36. If it is not clear which is the receiver probe for connecting the pre-amp then set the
channel number of the transmitter to be the same as the receiver channel. The A-scan
should be saturated. Disconnect the cables to each probe in turn. The removal of the
cable which causes the signal to disappear is connected to the receiver. Reset the
transmitter channel number and inset the pre-amp in the receiver line. Switch on pre-
amp and reduce the amplifier gain by about 40 dB.
37. Having obtained some satisfactory signals optimise the pulse-width, filters and
averaging. The greater the number of averages the better the signal-to-noise ratio but
the slower the rate of collection of data. Hence a compromise must be used. Usually
about 16 averages is adequate.
38. Check with the cursors that the lateral wave and backwall signal are approximately at
the calculated times. The lateral wave may be very weak and may need a very high
gain to recognise it.
Set region to be digitised and prf
39. Set digitiser start and width in “Set up A-scan” so that the collection gate (blue line
on screen ) starts just before the lateral wave and extends beyond the longitudinal
backwall signal. It is useful in the initial scans to extend the gate to include mode
converted signals up to the mode converted backwall signal (probably the largest
signal).
40. Set the pulse-repetition frequency (prf) to about 350 Hz if manually scanning with no
encoder. Otherwise set the prf to the highest possible value.
Fill in administrative details
41. Fill in “Report data”
42. Fill in “Set up data”, in particular the three entries
type of scan - parallel or non-parallel
probe-centre-separation
thickness of sample

Set gain
43. Adjust position of probes on test piece over a slot (top surface open) until signal from
bottom of slot optimum. Set gain so that this signal is about 60 % screen height,
consistent with the general base line noise level not being too high. Alternatively the
gain may be set by placing the probes on the sample to be inspected and adjusting the
gain so that the noise level between the lateral and backwall signals is about 5 %
screen height.
Prepare to collect data
44. The set up should be calibrated by either scanning over the test block described above
or on the sample to be inspected. This can be done by simply moving the probe array
manually using the “Free run” option.
45. Enter “Perform Scan”. The motor drive facilities panel first appears, ignore this by
pressing “Enter”. The “Scan Configuration Parameter” menu then appears. Enter
scan start as 0 mm and scan length according to how long the scan is. On the test piece
( which will be a parallel scan across the various slots) enter the total distance a
particular probe can move. If the calibration is to be carried out on the actual sample to
be inspected enter 50 mm. Enter 1 mm for the raster spacing and enter Yes for the
“Save Scan to Disk”. Set the collection mode to “Free run”. Press “Enter” and when
the file menu appears enter a file name. The final menu that appears before you can
collect the data is the “Report data” menu. Fill in any changes required and press
“Enter”. The computer starts to collect data at a rate governed by the prf, the number
of averages, the digitisation rate and the length of the collection gate. Move the probes
to match the speed of the data collection so that you approximately collect an A-scan
every millimetre along the scan. If the speed of collection is unsatisfactory alter the
prf, etc.
Analyse data collected from test piece
46. To analyse the data go to “Analyse Results”, then “Cursors” and select
“Parabolic”. For the scan on the sample to be measured see paragraph 26 below. For
the scan over the test piece with the slots carry on as described. In order to minimise
the errors use the calibration facilities to work out the velocity and probe delay. Set
the “Sample number at lateral wave” to zero and press “Enter”. A horizontal cursor
line appears on the displayed B-scan image of the data just collected. Move this to the
start of the first cycle of the lateral wave signal (note the amplitude reading at the cross
wire on the top of the screen) and press enter. The sample number is automatically
entered into the panel. Carry out the same operation for the backwall signal,
remembering to put the cursor to the start of the equivalent cycle with the opposite
phase to the cycle used for the lateral wave. Set the velocity and probe delay entries in
the panel to zero and enter “Okay”. The computer calculates the velocity and probe
delay. Check that they are reasonable values. If okay press “Enter”. If not “Escape”
and enter “File Management” and then “Show File Header”. Finally select “TOFD
Data” and check that the probe-centre-separation , thickness of sample and type of
scan are correctly entered. If they are entered incorrectly enter the correct values and
repeat the analysis. If the entries are correctly entered then go back to the start ( Step
3) and carefully repeat the whole process.
47. Having determined the velocity and probe delay check that the signals from the
bottom of the slots in the test piece are at the correct depths. The depths should be
within 0.5 mm of the correct depth. If this is not so the whole process should be

repeated until the depths are correct. The correct results must be verified by a second
scan with the depths being again within 0.5 mm.
Analyse data if calibration performed on sample to be inspected
48. For the calibration scan on the sample to be inspected enter the velocity and probe
delay into the “Parabolic cursor” menu and press “Okay”. The probe delay can either
be measured by noting the time to the transmitted signal when the probes are held face-
to-face, or by calibration on a test block as described above. Press “Okay” again and
then use the cursor to measure the depth of the backwall signal. The backwall signal
should be correct to within 1 mm. Repeat the scans until two consecutive scans are
within the required accuracy.
Calibrate encoder if using encoder alone or with a motorised scanner
49. In the situation whereby a motorised scanner is being used, from the “Set up
Variables” menu choose the “Choose Scanner” option. Choose the correct “.MOT”
file for the scanner being used and load it. Then choose the “Define Scanner” option
and set the various motor controls including velocity. Even if only an encoder is being
used this menu is used to define which is the positive direction of motion
(“Direction”).
50. When an encoder is utilised (with or without a mechanised scanner) the encoder must
be calibrated. To do this enter the “Calibrate” option and select the axis to which the
encoder is wired up to. The axis can be checked by selecting “Move Scanner” and
noting which axis registers a movement when the encoder wheel is moved. For the
calibration enter “Reset” to set the “Counts” to zero and move the encoder wheel a
known distance. Enter the distance in the “Distance” entry and enter “Okay”. The
appropriate gear ratio is worked out and stored so that the encoder motion is measured
in millimetres.
Prepare to inspect weld
51. Note datum position of start of weld inspection. If manual scanning mark with chalk,
etc., every 200 mm along the weld to help move the probes at a constant speed.
52. If the thickness of the sample to be inspected is different from the calibration test
piece alter the “Set up data” entry accordingly and set the type of scan to a non-
parallel scan. Re-calculate the time to the backwall signal. If thickness has changed
check digitisation gate still covers region of interest. If a motorised scanner or encoder
is to be used to monitor position then set the prf to be as high as possible.
53. Adjust wear plates according to direction of scan to be used.
54. Place probe array (and scanner) on weld to be inspected. Check that lateral wave and
backwall signal appear at the correct time.
Inspect weld
37. Enter “Perform Scan”. The motor drive facilities panel first appears, ignore this if
moving the probes by hand. If the scanner has a motor controlled by the data collection
computer then this facility enables the scanner to be driven to the start of the scan.
38. The “Scan Configuration Parameter” menu then appears. Enter scan start and scan
length according to where the start is with respect to the datum position and how long
the scan is. Enter 1 mm for the raster spacing and enter Yes for the “Save Scan to
Disk”. Set the collection mode to “Free run” or “Encoder” depending on whether an
encoder is used to measure position. Press “Enter” and when the file menu appears
enter a file name. The final menu that appears before you can collect the data is the
“Report data” menu. Fill in any changes required and press “Enter”. If the probes are

moved manually without an encoder then the computer starts to collect data at a rate
governed by the prf, the number of averages, the digitisation rate and the length of the
collection gate. Move the probes to match the speed of the data collection so that you
approximately collect an A-scan every mm along the scan. If the speed of collection is
unsatisfactory alter the prf, etc. If an encoder is being used nothing will happen until
the scanner is moved.
39. If the probes are moved manually with an encoder then if a region with bad couplant
is observed (disappearance of lateral and backwall signal) then the probes can be
moved back and the region re-scanned.
40. If the direction of the scan is in the negative direction then it can be changed to be
positive by choosing the “Define Scanner” option and change the “Direction” for the
axis to which the encoder is attached.
Check scan data
40. When the scan is complete check the quality of the data by playing back the data with
the “Analysis” facility.
41. If any couplant problems check the couplant supply, wear plates and surface finish of
sample.
42. If lines are missed when using an encoder check that the prf is as high as possible.
Otherwise reduce the load on the computer by going slower or by reducing the
averaging or the length of signal digitised.
End of shift or Inspection
40. At the end of the shift or inspection (which ever is shorter) repeat the calibration
procedure the same as at the start.
41. Log all files collected and make a backup of the collected files.
A3.2 Analysis
Display data
8. Enter “Analysis” and display file.
9. If the signals are faint enter ”View Control” and then “Contrast” to enhance the
weaker signals. If the data is compressed (axis has a blue colour) then use the ”Zoom”
facility in “View Control” to display relevant sections of the image on a 1:1 scale. The
“Scroll” facility enables you to scroll through the image with the zoom magnification
selected. If the lateral wave is very uneven it may be necessary to straighten it out as
described below.
Calibrate the scan
10. To obtain the probe delay and velocity for the scan select “Cursors” and then
“Parabolic”. facilities to work out the velocity and probe delay. Set the “Sample
number at lateral wave” to zero and press “Enter”. A horizontal cursor line appears on
the displayed image. Move this to the start of the first cycle of the lateral wave signal
(note the amplitude reading at the cross wire on the top of the screen) and press enter.
The sample number is automatically entered into the panel. Carry out the same
operation for the backwall signal, remembering to put the cursor to the start of the
equivalent cycle with the opposite phase to the cycle used for the lateral wave. Set the
velocity and probe delay entries in the panel to zero and enter “Okay”. The computer
calculates the velocity and probe delay. Check that they are reasonable values. If okay

press “Enter”. If not “Escape” and enter “File Management” and then “Show File
Header”. Finally select “TOFD Data” and check that the probe-centre-separation ,
thickness of sample and type of scan are correctly entered. If they are entered
incorrectly enter the correct values and repeat the analysis.
Measure depths and lengths of indications
11. Having determined the velocity and probe delay the depths of any indications in the
image can be determined with the cursor. Remember that the top of an indication
should have a phase opposite to the backwall and the bottom of the indication should
have the same phase. Position the cursor at the cross over point of the first cycle, after
allowing for the phase changes.
12. To assess the length of indications use the side wings of the parabolic shaped cursor.
The parabolic cursor represents the signal from a point source so if the parabolic cursor
follows the shape of the indication the indication has very little length (say less than 5
mm). However if the signals from the indication appear wider then position each wing
of the cursor in turn on the corresponding edge of the indication and note the position
along the x-axis. The difference in the two readings is the length of the indication.
Try and Characterise the indications
13. Try and make a guess as to the type of defect by following the logical reasoning
outlined in BS7706 and trying to estimate the position of the indication with respect to
the weld cross section
Design additional scans if required
14. If there is not sufficient information to carry out the above analysis then design
additional scans for collecting more information, i.e. parallel scans, more non-parallel
scans with different probe-centre-separations and maybe different probe frequency and
diameter.
A3.3 Processing the Data
Details of how to run the various programs is given in the User Guide.
A3.3.1 Lateral/backwall Straighten/Removal

6. If the lateral wave is uneven then it will look much better and enable more accurate
measurements to be made if it is straightened . Normally the straightening will be done
on the lateral wave but if surface opening indications are suspected the straightening
must be done on the backwall.
7. Using the displayed cursors in turn select for each side of a box a typical training area
of the lateral wave which appears flat. Then repeat the operation to select the extent of
the lateral wave which you wish to straighten. A new file will be automatically created
and displayed. The file name will be the same as the original image but the extension
will be .S00, .SO1 etc.
8. If the straightening is not entirely satisfactory keep repeating the process.
9. Very often an internal defect near to the upper surface of the sample will be hidden by
the lateral wave. This can often be revealed by, after suitably straightening the lateral
wave, subtracting an averaged lateral wave signal.
10. The lateral wave subtraction process is similar to the subtraction process, and if
required both can be carried out at the same time.

A3.3.2 Linearisation
4. Linearisation converts the whole image from a time scale to a depth scale. This facility
is especially useful when presenting images for reports.
A3.3.3 SAFT
6. The Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique transforms the ultrasonic data beyond two
near fields to a probe with a collimated beam of approximately half the current probe
diameter. Thus it can be used to determine length of indications more accurately and
also to clean up the picture and isolate overlapping signals (e.g. cluster of pores). Since
we can determine length usually adequately with the “Parabolic” cursor it is now
generally used to obtain a clearer image, since it removes the wings of genuine signals
and helps to remove noise.
7. Before starting use the cursor to measure the width of the wing from a typical signal.
This will give the number of A-scans over which the SAFT calculation should be
carried out.
10. The length of indications can be obtained by carrying out a 6 dB drop on the
echodynamic trace (see later).
A3.3.4 Examine A-scan display

2. In “Analyse Results” select “A-Scan View”. This allows any particular A-scan from
the displayed image to be plotted and measurements made if required.
A3.3.5 Select Part of an Image

1. In “File Management” select “Save Current Scan (partial)”. This option allows an
area to be selected from the image and stored in a file.
A3.3.6 Profiling
2. In “Analyse Results” select “Profiling”. This option allows with the cursor the
outline of an indication to be stored in a file. Provided the scan is done over the exact
same area additional profiles can be added to the file from subsequent scans. The
resultant profiles can be plotted on a depth scale. This is useful for displaying change
in an indication or for simply plotting out profiles, e.g. root erosion defects.

A3.3.7 Echodynamics
2. In “Analyse Results” select “Echodynamics”. This option allows the echodynamic
(maximum amplitude) trace to be extracted from the signal from an indication and 6-
dB drop sizing to be carried out. This is used after SAFT or on pulse -echo A-scans.
A3.3.8 Fourier Transform

1. Software is available to convert the image or parts of the image to a frequency
spectrum.

APPENDIX 4 PRINTING DATA

Two options are available to print data from the TOFD images (it is assumed that the
AEA Sonomatic Microplus system is being used to collect the data).
. One is to use the REPGEN program which runs under “Windows”, and the other is to
save the screen in the TOFD program using the “Prt Sc” key when the required display of
the data is on the screen.
A4.1 REPGEN
7. Select “REPGEN” program
8. Select “Print scan” and then “Print”. The option to select a printer will be displayed. If
the printer is correct select “Ok”.
9. In the “Page set up” option type in title for report. Select a BMP file which contains
the logo to be printed at the top of the output page. Select the drawing mode you
require and the number of copies and finally select “Ok”. If text has been added to the
file select the option to “Print text overlay”. Text can not be added in the REPGEN
program but must be added in the TOFD program.
10. In the “File window” select the directory in which the file is stored and highlite the
file to be printed. Multiple files can be selected by holding down the “Ctrl” key when
selecting the files. Select “Ok”.
11. The file is printed
12. If the greyscale requires more contrast select”Setup” and select the “Contrast” option.
Select a file and adjust the contrast.
A4.2 BMP File

4. BMP files can be printed for example with the “Paintbrush” program in “Windows” .
Hence select “Windows”, then select “Accessories” and finally “Paintbrush”.
5. Select the file open option and then select the directory and highlight the BMP file
name.
6. Select the Print option in the File menu and print the file.

Blank page

APPENDIX 5 TOFDAIDS SOFTWARE PACKAGE
Two examples of the TOFDAIDS package in the AEA Sonomatic Microplus system are
given below. Plots like this can be reproduced in a report by running the TOFDAIDS
software under “Windows”. Select the TOFDAIDS.BAT routine and select “RUN” from
the “File” option of a “File Manager”. Run the relevant program in the TOFDAIDS menu
(a detailed description is given in the User Guide) and press “Enter” to obtain a white
background for the displayed graphics output. Then to copy the output to the clipboard
press “Alt” and “Prt Sc”. The image in the clipboard can then be copied to your word
processing package with “Paste” in the “Edit” option.
An example of the beam spread for the inspection of a weld in a flat plate is given in
Figure 1.
plate in the TOFDAIDS package
The outputs are normally in colour, hence the current outputs in black and white are not
so clear. The beam spread plot shows in the shaded area the volume of coverage, and the
two near vertical lines (very faint) about the centre line represent the weld volume.
Appendix 5 TOFDAIDS page 145

The second example in Figure 2 is an example of an estimate of the various errors in the
measurement of depth. The following errors are individually plotted - timing error, wrong
probe separation, variation in couplant depth, velocity of sound variation and error due to
the fact that the indication is displaced away from the weld centre line. The upper curve
is the overall error from all the individual errors.
from the TOFDAIDS package
Appendix 5 TOFDAIDS page 146

INDEX
absolute ........................................... 70
6
calculation....................................... 18
6 dB drop sizing................................................................................................................
calculation using mode-convertion133 97
A relative to lateral or backwall echoes70
Depth error for off-axis flaws.........................................
Acceptance criteria .......................................................................................................... 92
diffraction process...........................................................
Analysis software Digitisation
lateral wave straighten and removal95 amplitude ........................................ 31
linearisation .................................... 95 frequency......................................... 33
locus plots........................................ 99 range................................................ 32
SAFT ............................................... 96 sampling rate ............................ 32, 64
shaped cursor.................................. 96 double skip inspection technique ..................................
Split Spectrum Processing ............. 99 D-scan ..............................................................................
angular variation of diffracted waves ............................................................................. 13
E
Attenuation......................................................................................................... 53, 54, 113
austenitic components ..................................................................................................... 76
ellipse - constant travel time ..........................................
B encoder.............................................................................
Equipment checks
backwall blind zone ..........................................................................................................
amplitude linearity ....................... 69 111
backwall echo....................................................................................................................
screen height linearity.................. 16 111
base line survey.................................................................................................................
time base linearity ........................ 28 111
beam half-angle ................................................................................................................
Errors 46
beam spread..............................................................................................................
change in probe separation ........... 7046, 145
B-scan .......................................................................................................................... 24, 36 72
couplant depth................................
C in monitoring situations................. 78
index point migration.....................
calibration to remove systematic errors ................................................................. 70, 137 74
Characterisation of flaws off-axis position .............. 67, 123, 133
others............................................... 75
additional scans .............................. 92
basic analysis................................... 83 overall...................................... 76, 145
surface profile.................................
common faults .................................................................................................................. 56 74
complex geometry .................................................................................................... 43, 102 63
timing...............................................
velocity ............................................
couplant....................................................................................................................... 22, 58 74
crack transparency ...........................................................................................................
F 91
cursor shaped (parabolic).................................................................................... 79, 90, 96
filtering .............................................................................
curved surfaces ............................................................................................................... 101
fingerprinting...................................................................
D firing rate .........................................................................
Flaw sizing
data collection systems..................................................................................................... 29
Dead zones 6 dB.................................................... 6
backwall echo.................................. 67 comparison of techniques................ 7
lateral wave ..................................... 67 pulse-echo ......................................... 5
Flaws
Defect Detection Trials ........................................................................................... 11, 116
Depth change in defect profile ................. 89
internal cracks ................................ 87
INDEX page i
lower surface breaking................... 89 M

pores ................................................ 86 manual scanning..............................................................
slag ................................................... 86 mode converted signals...................................................
stringers of slag............................... 87 mode convertion inspection technique .........................
transverse ........................................ 91 modelling .........................................................................
uncategorized ................................. 92 monitoring flaw growth ..................................................
upper surface breaking .................. 87 motorised scanning .........................................................
volumetric ....................................... 86 multiple arcs ...................................................................
weld.................................................. 91 multiplexing .....................................................................
weld root erosion............................ 90
N
G
near surface problems.....................................................
Gain non-parallel scan .............................................................
setting .............................................. 53 number of scans...............................................................
setting from grain noise ................. 54 Nyquist limit ....................................................................
setting with slots ............................. 53
O
gap scanning ..................................................................................................................... 58
grain scattering ......................................................................................................... 54, 113
off-axis scans ....................................................................
grey scale imaging ............................................................................................................ 36
P
Guide to inspection........................................................................................................ 135
H parallel scan. ....................................................................
phase relationships..........................................................
head amplifier................................................................................................................... 30
PISC..................................................................................
I pixels.................................................................................
Pre-amp............................................................................
Inspection, step-by-step guide....................................................................................... 135
pre-calibration scan.........................................................
internal cracks .................................................................................................................... 3
precision ...........................................................................
L Print data .........................................................................
Probe
large grained materials .................................................................................................... 76
lateral wave ......................................................................................................... 16, 66, 101 14
angles...............................................
delay ........................................
lateral wave straighten and removal................................................................. 66, 95, 140 20, 112
Length determination typical .............................................. 15
probe angle - choice ........................................................
accuracy........................................... 82
error................................................. 78 probe centre separation..................................................
flaw profile parallel to scanning surfac probe centre separation - choice ...................................
...................................................... 78 Probe checks
flaws with curved profiles .............. 80 beam angle .................................... 111
using SAFT ..................................... 80 beam spread.................................. 111
frequency.......................................
Level 1 ................................................................................................................................. 1 113
probe delay ................................... 112
Level II ................................................................................................................................ 1
probe index emission point
linearisation .............................................................................................................. ......... 111
95, 140
pulse length...................................
locus points ............................................................................................................... 99, 103 113
loss of couplant................................................................................................................. 22 112
resolution ......................................
sensitivity....................................... 112
probe frequency...............................................................
probe frequency - choice ................................................
INDEX page ii
Times of arrival
Procedure writing........................................................................................................... 107
backwall echo
Process the TOFD data ................................................................................................. 140 22
lateral wave
pulse length..................................................................................................................... 113 22
tip diffraction signals30, 39, 41, 57
pulse repetition frequency............................................................................. 16
TOFD
pulse width control........................................................................................................... 40
basic arrangement .......................... 14
R
basic steps........................................ 28
Reporting ........................................................................................................................
choice of inspection parameters 105 ... 60
reporting threshold .......................................................................................................... 92 15
wave type.........................................
resolution .................................................................................................................. 45, 112
transverse flaws................................................................
resolution of internal flaws.............................................................................................. 69
U
S
unrectified A-scan ...........................................................
SAFT ............................................................................................................. 80, 86, 96, 140
V
sampling interval .............................................................................................................. 58
shear wave.........................................................................................................................
Validation/Trials 15
shear wave pattern of signals in parallel EPRI NDE Centre Validation work121
scan ................................................................................................................................
NIL Project ................................... 85 121
signal averaging ................................................................................................................
PISC II Trials................................ 38 117
signal-to-noise ratio .........................................................................................................
PISC III Trials .............................. 38 118
Size indications............................................................................................................... 139 115
trials ...............................................
Snells law...........................................................................................................................
trials on offshore structures ........ 47 120
Split Spectrum Processing ...............................................................................................
UK Defect Detection Trials........ 99 116
Standard validation exercises ..................... 115
British ................................................ 1 Welding Institute Collaborative
European .......................................... 1 Programme ............................... 119
Surface breaking flaws velocity Measurement 112
backwall........................................... 22 velocity units 4
importance ........................................ 3 W
near surface..................................... 22
Wave types
T compression ...................................... 4
temperature 58 diffraction........................................ 11
time measurement of signals longitudinal ....................................... 4
21 shear .................................................. 4
time spread between lateral and backwall wavelength
51 wear plates 58
time window 55
INDEX page iii

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Veritec Sonomatic Ltd

TIME - OF - FLIGHT DIFFRACTION COURSE

(PCN Level I and II)

Prepared by Reviewed by Approved by Revision

Figure 1 Co-ordinate System

TIME - OF - FLIGHT DIFFRACTION COURSE i

4.9 Pulse Repetition Frequency ............................................................................. 44

6.6 Spatial Resolution of embedded defects ............................................................ 70

8.4 Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique - SAFT ............................................... 98

APPENDIX 2 DETERMINATION OF DEPTH FOR OFF-AXIS FLAWS IN A

Figure 6.4 Illustration of Back Wall Blind Zone........................................................... 69

1.1 Scope of the Course

Chapter 1 Introduction. Page 1

It is assumed that a reasonable level of ultrasonic understanding has already been

The object of the examination is to demonstrate that ultrasonic practitioners are

Chapter 1 Introduction. Page 2

2. BACKGROUND AND CONVENTIONAL ULTRASONIC TESTING

2.1 Background to Non Destructive Testing

Defects in welded structures may give rise to premature failure or unserviceability in

Chapter 2 Background to ultrasonics page 3

2.2 Ultrasonic Non-Destructive Testing

If an electric potential is applied to a piezoelectric type material it oscillates and if it

2.3 Pulse-echo detection of flaws

Chapter 2 Background to ultrasonics page 4

An ultrasonic inspection of a sample is carried out by scanning the metal with a

2.4 Flaw Sizing with the Pulse-echo Technique

Chapter 2 Background to ultrasonics page 5

Figure 2.1 Flaw size in relation to beam spread

Figure 2.2 Determination of Flaw Size by 6dB Drop Sizing

Chapter 2 Background to ultrasonics page 6

Defect positions Through-thickness Length

2.5 Comparison of Flaw Sizing Accuracy for different Techniques

Chapter 2 Background to ultrasonics page 7

Chapter 2 Background to ultrasonics page 8

Chapter 2 Background to ultrasonics page 9

3. THE TIME-OF-FLIGHT DIFFRACTION TECHNIQUE

3.1 Background to the Importance of the TOFD Technique

Chapter 3 TOFD technique page 9

3.2 History of TOFD Development

Figure 3.1 Illustration of importance of accurate sizing measurements

Chapter 3 TOFD technique page 10

The two most important differences from conventional pulse-echo are

Chapter 3 TOFD technique page 11

3.3 Principle of TOFD

3.3.1 Diffraction process

Figure 3.2 Representation of the Diffraction Process from Crack Tips

Chapter 3 TOFD technique page 12

Figure 3.3 Illustration of Diffraction

3.3.2 Angular Variation of Diffraction Signals

Figure 3.4 Calculated Variation of Amplitude of Diffracted Waves with Angle

Chapter 3 TOFD technique page 13

3.3.3 Basic TOFD Set-up

3.3.3.1 Probe type and wave type

Figure 3.5 Cross Section of Typical Probe

Chapter 3 TOFD technique page 14

3.3.3.2 Signals observed

Figure 3.6 Wave Paths for the TOFD Arrangement

Chapter 3 TOFD technique page 15

Chapter 3 TOFD technique page 16

3.3.3.3 Phase Relationships

Figure 3.7 A-scan with no Defect Present

Chapter 3 TOFD technique page 17