The Physiological Response

If you've ever felt your stomach lurch from anxiety or your heart palpate with fear, then you
realize that emotions also cause strong physiological reactions. (Or, as in the Cannon-Bard
theory of emotion, we feel emotions and experience physiological reactions simultaneously.)

Many of the physiological responses you experience during an emotion, such as sweaty palms or
a racing heartbeat, are regulated by the sympathetic nervous system, a branch of the autonomic
nervous system.

The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary body responses, such as blood flow and
digestion. The sympathetic nervous system is charged with controlling the body's fight-or-flight
reactions. When facing a threat, these responses automatically prepare your body to flee from
danger or face the threat head-on.

While early studies of the physiology of emotion tended to focus on these autonomic responses,
more recent research has targeted the brain's role in emotions. Brain scans have shown that
the amygdala, part of the limbic system, plays an important role in emotion and fear in
particular.5 The amygdala itself is a tiny, almond-shaped structure that has been linked to
motivational states such as hunger and thirst as well as memory and emotion.

Researchers have used brain imaging to show that when people are shown threatening images,
the amygdala becomes activated. Damage to the amygdala has also been shown to impair the
fear response.6

How the Brain Shapes How You Feel

The Behavioral Response

The final component is perhaps one that you are most familiar with—the actual expression of
emotion. We spend a significant amount of time interpreting the emotional expressions of the
people around us. Our ability to accurately understand these expressions is tied to what
psychologists call emotional intelligence, and these expressions play a major part in our
overall body language.

Research suggests that many expressions are universal, such as a smile to indicate happiness or a
frown to indicate sadness. Sociocultural norms also play a role in how we express and interpret
emotions.

In Japan, for example, people tend to mask displays of fear or disgust when an authority figure is
present. Similarly, Western cultures like the United States are more likely to express negative
emotions both alone and in the presence of others, while eastern cultures like Japan are more
likely to do so while alone.7

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Are Our Emotional Expressions Universal?

Emotions vs. Moods

In everyday language, people often use the terms "emotions" and "moods" interchangeably, but
psychologists actually make distinctions between the two. How do they differ? An emotion is
normally quite short-lived, but intense. Emotions are also likely to have a definite and
identifiable cause.

For example, after disagreeing with a friend over politics, you might feel angry for a short period
of time. A mood, on the other hand, is usually much milder than an emotion, but longer-lasting8.
In many cases, it can be difficult to identify the specific cause of a mood. For example, you
might find yourself feeling gloomy for several days without any clear, identifiable reason.

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Overview of the 6 Major
Theories of Emotion
Emotions exert an incredibly powerful force on human behavior. Strong emotions can cause you
to take actions you might not normally perform or to avoid situations you enjoy. Why exactly do
we have emotions? What causes us to have these feelings? Researchers, philosophers, and
psychologists have proposed different theories to explain the how and why behind human
emotions.

What Is Emotion?

In psychology, emotion is often defined as a complex state of feeling that results in physical and
psychological changes that influence thought and behavior. Emotionality is associated with a
range of psychological phenomena, including temperament, personality, mood, and motivation.
According to author David G. Meyers, human emotion involves "...physiological arousal,
expressive behaviors, and conscious experience."

Theories of Emotion

The major theories of motivation can be grouped into three main categories: physiological,
neurological, and cognitive.

1. Physiological theories suggest that responses within the body are responsible for emotions.
2. Neurological theories propose that activity within the brain leads to emotional responses.
3. Cognitive theories argue that thoughts and other mental activity play an essential role in forming
emotions.

Verywell / Jiaqi Zhou

Evolutionary Theory of Emotion

3
It was naturalist Charles Darwin who proposed that emotions evolved because they were
adaptive and allowed humans and animals to survive and reproduce. Feelings of love and
affection lead people to seek mates and reproduce. Feelings of fear compel people to either fight
or flee the source of danger.

According to the evolutionary theory of emotion, our emotions exist because they serve an
adaptive role. Emotions motivate people to respond quickly to stimuli in the environment, which
helps improve the chances of success and survival.

Understanding the emotions of other people and animals also plays a crucial role in safety and
survival. If you encounter a hissing, spitting, and clawing animal, chances are you will quickly
realize that the animal is frightened or defensive and leave it alone. By being able to interpret
correctly the emotional displays of other people and animals, you can respond correctly and
avoid danger.

The James-Lange Theory of Emotion

The James-Lange theory is one of the best-known examples of a physiological theory of

emotion. Independently proposed by psychologist William James and physiologist Carl Lange,
the James-Lange theory of emotion suggests that emotions occur as a result of physiological
reactions to events.1

This theory suggests that when you see an external stimulus that leads to a physiological
reaction. Your emotional reaction is dependent upon how you interpret those physical reactions.
For example, suppose you are walking in the woods and you see a grizzly bear. You begin to
tremble, and your heart begins to race. The James-Lange theory proposes that you will interpret
your physical reactions and conclude that you are frightened ("I am trembling. Therefore, I am
afraid"). According to this theory of emotion, you are not trembling because you are frightened.
Instead, you feel frightened because you are trembling.1

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

The Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

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Another well-known physiological theory is the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion. Walter Cannon
disagreed with the James-Lange theory of emotion on several different grounds. First, he
suggested, people can experience physiological reactions linked to emotions without actually
feeling those emotions. For example, your heart might race because you have been exercising
and not because you are afraid.2

Cannon also suggested that emotional responses occur much too quickly for them to be simply
products of physical states. When you encounter a danger in the environment, you will often feel
afraid before you start to experience the physical symptoms associated with fear such as shaking
hands, rapid breathing, and a racing heart.2

Cannon first proposed his theory in the 1920s and his work was later expanded on by
physiologist Philip Bard during the 1930s. According to the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion, we
feel emotions and experience physiological reactions such as sweating, trembling, and muscle
tension simultaneously.3

More specifically, it is suggested that emotions result when the thalamus sends a message to the
brain in response to a stimulus, resulting in a physiological reaction. At the same time, the brain
also receives signals triggering the emotional experience. Cannon and Bard’s theory suggests
that the physical and psychological experience of emotion happen at the same time and that one
does not cause the other.3

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

Schachter-Singer Theory

Also known as the two-factor theory of emotion, the Schachter-Singer Theory is an example of
a cognitive theory of emotion. This theory suggests that the physiological arousal occurs first,
and then the individual must identify the reason for this arousal to experience and label it as an
emotion. A stimulus leads to a physiological response that is then cognitively interpreted and
labeled which results in an emotion.4

Schachter and Singer’s theory draws on both the James-Lange theory and the Cannon-Bard
theory of emotion. Like the James-Lange theory, the Schachter-Singer theory proposes that

5
people do infer emotions based on physiological responses. The critical factor is the situation and
the cognitive interpretation that people use to label that emotion.4

Like the Cannon-Bard theory, the Schachter-Singer theory also suggests that similar
physiological responses can produce varying emotions. For example, if you experience a racing
heart and sweating palms during an important math exam, you will probably identify the emotion
as anxiety. If you experience the same physical responses on a date with your significant other,
you might interpret those responses as love, affection, or arousal.4

The Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

Cognitive Appraisal Theory

According to appraisal theories of emotion, thinking must occur first before experiencing
emotion. Richard Lazarus was a pioneer in this area of emotion, and this theory is often referred
to as the Lazarus theory of emotion.

According to this theory, the sequence of events first involves a stimulus, followed by
thought which then leads to the simultaneous experience of a physiological response and the
emotion. For example, if you encounter a bear in the woods, you might immediately begin to
think that you are in great danger. This then leads to the emotional experience of fear and the
physical reactions associated with the fight-or-flight response.5

Facial-Feedback Theory of Emotion

The facial-feedback theory of emotions suggests that facial expressions are connected to
experiencing emotions. Charles Darwin and William James both noted early on that sometimes
physiological responses often had a direct impact on emotion, rather than simply being a
consequence of the emotion. Supporters of this theory suggest that emotions are directly tied to
changes in facial muscles. For example, people who are forced to smile pleasantly at a social
function will have a better time at the event than they would if they had frowned or carried a
more neutral facial expression.6

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A Word From Verywell

Despite the fact that emotions impact every decision we make and the way we see the world,
there is still a lot of mystery surrounding why we have emotions. Research on emotions
continues to explore what causes feelings and how these feelings affect us.

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Depression Symptoms and Warning
Signs
Do you think you might be depressed? Here are
some of the signs and symptoms to look for—and
tips for getting the help you need.
What is depression?
Feeling down from time to time is a normal part of life, but when emotions such
as hopelessness and despair take hold and just won’t go away, you may have
depression. More than just sadness in response to life’s struggles and setbacks,
depression changes how you think, feel, and function in daily activities. It can
interfere with your ability to work, study, eat, sleep, and enjoy life. Just trying to
get through the day can be overwhelming.

While some people describe depression as “living in a black hole” or having a

feeling of impending doom, others feel lifeless, empty, and apathetic. Men in
particular can feel angry and restless. However you experience depression, left
untreated it can become a serious health condition. But it’s important to
remember that feelings of helplessness and hopelessness are symptoms of
depression—not the reality of your situation.

No matter how hopeless you feel, you can get better. By understanding the
cause of your depression and recognizing the different symptoms and types of
depression, you can take the first steps to feeling better and overcoming the
problem.

What are the symptoms of depression?

Depression varies from person to person, but there are some common signs and
symptoms. It’s important to remember that these symptoms can be part of life’s
normal lows. But the more symptoms you have, the stronger they are, and the
longer they’ve lasted—the more likely it is that you’re dealing with depression.

10 common symptoms of depression:

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 1.
1. Feelings of helplessness and hopelessness. A bleak outlook—
nothing will ever get better and there’s nothing you can do to
improve your situation.
2. Loss of interest in daily activities. You don’t care anymore about
former hobbies, pastimes, social activities, or sex. You’ve lost your
ability to feel joy and pleasure.
3. Appetite or weight changes. Significant weight loss or weight
gain—a change of more than 5% of body weight in a month.
4. Sleep changes. Either insomnia, especially waking in the early
hours of the morning, or oversleeping.
5. Anger or irritability. Feeling agitated, restless, or even violent. Your
tolerance level is low, your temper short, and everything and
everyone gets on your nerves.
6. Loss of energy. Feeling fatigued, sluggish, and physically drained.
Your whole body may feel heavy, and even small tasks are
exhausting or take longer to complete.
7. Self-loathing. Strong feelings of worthlessness or guilt. You harshly
criticize yourself for perceived faults and mistakes.
8. Reckless behavior. You engage in escapist behavior such as
substance abuse, compulsive gambling, reckless driving, or
dangerous sports.
9. Concentration problems. Trouble focusing, making decisions, or
remembering things.
10. Unexplained aches and pains. An increase in physical
complaints such as headaches, back pain, aching muscles, and
stomach pain.

Is it depression or bipolar disorder?

Bipolar disorder, also known as manic depression, involves serious shifts in
moods, energy, thinking, and behavior. Because it looks so similar to depression
when in the low phase, it is often overlooked and misdiagnosed. This can be a
serious problem as taking antidepressants for bipolar depression can actually
make the condition worse. If you’ve ever gone through phases where you
experienced excessive feelings of euphoria, a decreased need for sleep, racing
thoughts, and impulsive behavior, consider getting evaluated for bipolar disorder.

Depression and suicide risk

Depression is a major risk factor for suicide. The deep despair and hopelessness
that goes along with depression can make suicide feel like the only way to

9
escape the pain. If you have a loved one with depression, take any suicidal talk
or behavior seriously and watch for the warning signs:

1.
1.
1. Talking about killing or harming one’s self
2. Expressing strong feelings of hopelessness or being trapped
3. An unusual preoccupation with death or dying
4. Acting recklessly, as if they have a death wish (e.g. speeding
through red lights)
5. Calling or visiting people to say goodbye
6. Getting affairs in order (giving away prized possessions, tying
up loose ends)
7. Saying things like “Everyone would be better off without me”
or “I want out”
8. A sudden switch from being extremely depressed to acting
calm and happy

If you think a friend or family member is considering suicide, express your

concern and seek help immediately. Talking openly about suicidal thoughts and
feelings can save a life.

How depression symptoms vary with gender and

age
Depression often varies according to age and gender, with symptoms differing
between men and women, or young people and older adults.

Depression in men
Depressed men are less likely to acknowledge feelings of self-loathing and
hopelessness. Instead, they tend to complain about fatigue, irritability, sleep
problems, and loss of interest in work and hobbies. They’re also more likely to
experience symptoms such as anger, aggression, reckless behavior, and
substance abuse.

Depression in women
Women are more likely to experience depression symptoms such as pronounced
feelings of guilt, excessive sleeping, overeating, and weight gain. Depression in
women is also impacted by hormonal factors during menstruation, pregnancy,

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and menopause. In fact, postpartum depression affects up to 1 in 7 women
experience depression following childbirth.

Depression in teens
Irritability, anger, and agitation are often the most noticeable symptoms
in depressed teens—not sadness. They may also complain of headaches,
stomachaches, or other physical pains.

Depression in older adults

Older adults tend to complain more about the physical rather than the emotional
signs and symptoms of depression: things like fatigue, unexplained aches and
pains, and memory problems. They may also neglect their personal appearance
and stop taking critical medications for their health.

Types of depression
Depression comes in many shapes and forms. Knowing what type of depression
you have can help you manage your symptoms and get the most effective
treatment.

Major depression
Major depression is much less common than mild or moderate depression and is
characterized by severe, relentless symptoms.

 Left untreated, major depression typically lasts for about six months.

 Some people experience just a single depressive episode in their

lifetime, but major depression can be a recurring disorder.

Atypical depression
Atypical depression is a common subtype of major depression with a specific
symptom pattern. It responds better to some therapies and medications than
others, so identifying it can be helpful.

 People with atypical depression experience a temporary mood lift in

response to positive events, such as after receiving good news or while
out with friends.

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  Other symptoms of atypical depression include weight gain, increased
appetite, sleeping excessively, a heavy feeling in the arms and legs, and
sensitivity to rejection.

Dysthymia (recurrent, mild depression)

Dysthymia is a type of chronic “low-grade” depression. More days than not, you
feel mildly or moderately depressed, although you may have brief periods of
normal mood.

 The symptoms of dysthymia are not as strong as the symptoms of major

depression, but they last a long time (at least two years).

 Some people also experience major depressive episodes on top of

dysthymia, a condition known as “double depression.”

 If you suffer from dysthymia, you may feel like you’ve always been
depressed. Or you may think that your continuous low mood is “just the
way you are.”

Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

For some people, the reduced daylight hours of winter lead to a form of
depression known as seasonal affective disorder (SAD). SAD affects about 1%
to 2% of the population, particularly women and young people. SAD can make
you feel like a completely different person to who you are in the summer:
hopeless, sad, tense, or stressed, with no interest in friends or activities you
normally love. SAD usually begins in fall or winter when the days become shorter
and remains until the brighter days of spring.

Depression causes and risk factors

While some illnesses have a specific medical cause, making treatment
straightforward, depression is more complicated. Depression is not just the result
of a chemical imbalance in the brain that can be simply cured with medication.
It’s caused by a combination of biological, psychological, and social factors. In
other words, your lifestyle choices, relationships, and coping skills matter just as
much—if not more so—than genetics.

Risk factors that make you more vulnerable to depression

include:

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 1. Loneliness and isolation
2. Lack of social support
3. Recent stressful life experiences
4. Family history of depression
5. Marital or relationship problems
6. Financial strain
7. Early childhood trauma or abuse
8. Alcohol or drug abuse
9. Unemployment or underemployment
10. Health problems or chronic pain

The cause of your depression helps determine the treatment

Understanding the underlying cause of your depression may help you overcome
the problem. For example, if you are depressed because of a dead-end job, the
best treatment might be finding a more satisfying career rather than simply taking
an antidepressant. If you are new to an area and feeling lonely and sad, finding
new friends will probably give you more of a mood boost than going to therapy. In
such cases, the depression is remedied by changing the situation.

What you can do to feel better

When you’re depressed, it can feel like there’s no light at the end of the tunnel.
But there are many things you can do to lift and stabilize your mood. The key is
to start with a few small goals and slowly build from there, trying to do a little
more each day. Feeling better takes time, but you can get there by making
positive choices for yourself.

To cope with depression

Reach out to other people. Isolation fuels depression, so reach out to friends and
loved ones, even if you feel like being alone or don’t want to be a burden to
others. The simple act of talking to someone face-to-face about how you feel can
be an enormous help. The person you talk to doesn’t have to be able to fix you.
He or she just needs to be a good listener—someone who’ll listen attentively
without being distracted or judging you.

Get moving. When you’re depressed, just getting out of bed can seem daunting,
let alone exercising. But regular exercise can be as effective as antidepressant
medication in countering the symptoms of depression. Take a short walk or put

13
some music on and dance around. Start with small activities and build up from
there.

Eat a mood boosting diet. Reduce your intake of foods that can adversely
affect your mood, such as caffeine, alcohol, trans fats, sugar and refined carbs.
And increase mood-enhancing nutrients such as Omega-3 fatty acids.

Find ways to engage again with the world. Spend some time in nature, care
for a pet, volunteer, pick up a hobby you used to enjoy (or take up a new one).
You won’t feel like it at first, but as you participate in the world again, you will
start to feel better.

When to seek professional help

If support from family and friends and positive lifestyle changes aren’t enough, it
may be time to seek help from a mental health professional. There are many
effective treatments for depression, including:

Therapy. Effective treatment for depression often includes consulting a therapist

who can provide you tools to treat depression from a variety of angles and
motivate you to take the action necessary. Therapy can also offer you the skills
and insight to prevent depression from coming back.

Medication may be imperative if you’re feeling suicidal or violent. But while it can
help relieve symptoms of depression in some people, it isn’t a cure and is not
usually a long-term solution. It also comes with side effects and other drawbacks
so it’s important to learn all the facts to make an informed decision.

14
11 Surprising Ways Emotions
Can Affect Your Body
Our emotions have a direct connection to our body that lets them have a big impact not
only on our mental but also on our bodily state. With the right knowledge, it’s possible
to see how powerful our emotions are and how they can help you to manage your state
of mind and keep your body healthy.
Have you ever wondered what you can do to your view of life and to the state of your
body with the help of the emotions that many people try to hide? If we consider our
feelings when they bother us, we can not only help ourselves but also bring harmony
to our mental and physical state.
Bright Side is glad to share with you the keys to a healthy and happy life! And don’t
miss a bonus at the end.

1. Love

15
When in love, you may notice a racing heartbeat and your hands getting sweatier.
It is caused by the stimulation of adrenaline and norepinephrine, says Kat Van Kirk,
a clinical sexologist and licensed marriage and family therapist. At the same time,
oxytocin, the “love hormone,” makes you feel happy, confident, and fades
your pain as the “painkiller” areas of the brain are being activated, and your heart
becomes healthier. It is said that married people live longer than singles.

2. Anger and anxiety

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Anger is associated with resentment, irritability, and rage. It can bring you anything from
a headache and insomnia to digestion problems, skin problems, a heart attack, or even
a stroke. What’s more, if you’re a worrier, anger can make it even worse
by strengthening the symptoms of generalized anxiety disorder. So as not to let your
anger win, step back for a moment, realize why you are angry, and talk to people about
what’s on your mind. Find the solution to the problem, and let go of unhealthy thought
patterns.

17
 3. Depression

Depression is a brain disorder that can lead to emotional anguish. This state increases your risk
of a number of illnesses and makes your immune system weak. It also causes insomnia because
of an inability to get comfortable or lots of troubled thoughts. Depression and exposure to stress
lead to a risk of a heart attack. A depressed person can also have trouble with their memory
or making decisions.

18
 4. Fear

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When we’re frightened, the blood literally drains from our face, making us pale. This happens
thanks to the autonomic nervous system, the fight-or-flight control system. When we face
a trigger, blood vessels pinch off the flow to our face and extremities, sending more blood to our
muscles and body so we’ll be ready for either the flight or the fight.

5. Disgust

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 ADVERTISEMENT
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Feeling disgust for something or, even worse, someone is one of the most difficult emotions for
anybody to control. Unlike other emotions like fear and anger, which make your heartbeat
speed up, disgust makes your heartbeat slow down a bit. You can also feel nausea
or as if something is wrong with your stomach.
This happens because the antipathy produced by disgust has a lot of the same physiological
elements that make up the digestive system. To avoid this, take a deep breath, realize that it’s just

20
your emotions trying to control your thinking, and do the opposite of what you’re feeling: instead
of making fun of someone or something, be kind toward them.

6. Shame

In cases of healthy shame, a person doesn’t lose their self-esteem and free will. Unhealthy shame
usually comes from the past, and, in this sense, toxic shame becomes a person’s part and a kind
of stress for them. This causes problems such as overproduction of cortisol, the primary stress
hormone, and this can lead to an increased heart rate and constricted arteries.

21
To overcome shame, stop comparing yourself to others. Learn to be confident and unafraid
of what people say or think. Let them do what they do, and remember that it’s only you who
knows the truth. Challenge yourself, win the battle, and love yourself.
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7. Pride and contempt

22
Unreasonable pride comes from negative thoughts about other people together with the feeling
that there’s no one better than you. This connection can make you stressed, which leads
to heartburn, stomachache, high blood pressure, etc. The saying “Pride goes before a fall” shows
that being proud can lead to a consequence that results in ignoring potential risks.

23
If it’s hard for you to say, “I’m sorry,” try these tips: stop being a perfectionist, and consider
your fails as a chance for a better try. Be more empathetic, and try to understand others’ feelings.
Accept people as they are, write down your apologies, and don’t take embarrassment too
seriously because this is the main thing that prevents us from freedom.

8. Jealousy

Some people find jealousy to be sweet, but only when it’s not too much. Normal jealousy is what
a person feels when they’re worried or they fear losing a loved one. Unhealthy jealousy can

24
destroy hearts, relationships, and families. The stress of jealousy quickens the heart rate and
raises the blood pressure. You can also have other symptoms that negative emotions bring: poor
appetite, significant weight loss or gain, insomnia, stomach problems, and so on.
First, just start to believe your partner, however trite it sounds. Stop comparing yourself
to others, and don’t confuse make-believe with reality. These are the most effective tips for
overcoming jealousy in relationships.

9. Happiness

Aristotle said, “Happiness is the meaning and the purpose of life, the whole aim and end
of human existence.” Happiness and good health go hand-in-hand, making our hearts healthier,
our immune systems stronger, and our lives longer. It also helps us to overcome stress.
According to a study published in 2015, positive well-being was found to have a beneficial
effect on survival, reducing the risk of death by 18% in healthy people and by 2% in those with
pre-existing diseases.
Start increasing your happiness right now by hugging someone you care about, dress to impress
not only others but yourself, and don’t forget to smile. Also, don’t forget to be active, spend time
outside, have a good night’s rest, and meditate — even if you don’t know how! And the most
important point is to enjoy your life!

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