CHAPTER 2.

Divisibility
2.1 Definition
▪ Let a,b ϵ Z, with a ≠ 0. We say that a divides b if
there exists an integer q such that b = aq. We use
the notation a|b to mean “a divides b”.

b isdivisible
by a

a dividesb
a b =
b is a multipleof a

a is a divisoror factorof b
▪ If a does not divide b, then we write a|b.
 Example 2.1 3 | 6, since 6 = 3 (2) and 2 ϵ Z. Likewise,
3 |-6 since -6 = 3(-2) and -2 ϵ Z. However, 3 | 7.

2.2 Proper Divisor

a is a proper divisor of b if a|b and a < b. Note that
all divisors of b, except b itself are proper divisors
of b. In addition, 1 has no proper divisor and 1 is a
proper divisor of every larger integer.

▪ Nontrivial Divisor
a is a nontrivial divisor of b if a|b and 1 < a < b.

▪ Example 2.2 The positive divisors of 18 are 1, 2, 3, 6,

9, and 18. Its proper divisors are 1, 2, 3, 6, and 9
while the nontrivial divisors are 2, 3, 6, and 9.
2.3 Theorems on Divisibility

• Let a, b, c, m ϵ Z
1. If a|b and b|c, then a|c.
2. If a|b, then a|bx, x ϵ Z.
3. If a|b and a|c, then a|(bx + cy), x, y ϵ Z.
4. If a|b and b|a, then a = + b
5. If a|b and a > 0, b > 0, then a < b.
2.4 Divisibility Rules

i. A number is divisible by 2 if the last digit

is either 0, 2, 4, 6, or 8.
ii. A number N is divisible by 22 = 4 if the
last 2 digits of N is divisible by 4.
iii. A number N is divisible by 23 = 8 if the
last 3 digits of N is divisible by 8.
iv. A number N is divisible by 2k if the last k
digits of N is divisible by 2k.
v. A number is divisible by 5 if the last digit
is either 0 or 5.
vi. A number is divisible by 5k if the last k
digits of N is divisible by 5k.
vii.A number N is divisible by 9 if the sum of
the digits of N is divisible by 9.
viii.A number N is divisible by 3 if the sum
of the digits of N is divisible by 3.
ix. A number N is divisible by 11 if the
difference of the sum of the odd-
positioned digits and the sum of the
even-positioned digits of the number N is
divisible by 11.
2.5 Division Algorithm. For any natural
number a and b, there exist unique integers q
and r such that b = aq + r with 0 < r < a.
Example 2.3 Given 2 natural numbers
a = 12 and b = 35.
35 = 12(2) + 11
q = 2, r = 11
• For any integers a and b, with a ≠ 0, then
there exist unique integers q and r such
that b = aq + r with 0 < r < |a|.
Example 2.4 Given 2 integers
a = -8 and b = 31.
31 = -8(-3) + 7
q = -3, r = 7 0 < 7<|-8|
Example 2.5 Given 2 integers
a = 14 and b = -82.
-82 = 14(-6) + 2
q = -6, r = 2 0 < 2 < 14
Example 2.6 Apply the division algorithm
then state the quotient and the remainder.
1. a = 11 b = 127
2. a = -7 b = 61
3. a = -12 b = -59
4. a = 29 b = -171
5. a = -30 b = -105
2.6 Prime Factorization

• A natural number n is said to be

composite if it has a nontrivial divisor;
that is, it has a divisor d such that 1 < d < n.
If so, n = dc where c = n/d.
• A natural number p is said to be prime if
p>1 and p has no nontrivial divisor.
• Every integer greater than 1 is expressible
as a product of primes.
• If n is composite, then n is divisible by a
prime p < n .
• The unique prime factorization of n is
called the canonical prime factorization
of n and is given by

n = p p ...pk
a1 a2
1 2
ak

where the pi’s are distinct and

p1 < p 2 < … < pk .
Example 2.7 The canonical prime
factorization of 72 is 23 · 32.
2.6.1. Methods of Finding Canonical Prime
Factorization
• Use of Factor Tree
• Continuous Division
• Fermat’s Method

Example 2.8 Give the canonical prime

factorization of
a. 260
b. 187
c. 667
d. 2387
1. Factor Tree
a. 260 b. 187
5 52 11 17
2 26 b.187=11•17
2 13
a.260= 2•2•5•13
= 2 •5•13
2
2. Continuous Division
5 260
2 52
2 26
a.260= 2•2•5•13
1313 = 2 •5•13
2

1
3. Fermat’s Method
• Used in factoring large odd composite numbers
Steps:
1. Calculate x= n
2. Compute x2 – n starting with the first integer
greater than x and continue with the next integer (s)
until you reach a square, denoted by y2.

3. Since x2 – n = y2, then n = x2 – y2 and so

n = (x + y)(x – y).
Example 2.9. Use the Fermat’s
Method to factor the following:

a. 667
b. 533
c. 2387
a. 667; Solution: Extract the root of n.
n =667 n = 667 25.8263
We note that 252 < 667< 262.
So, take the next integer after 25, i.e., 26

Hence, if x = 26, y2 = 262 – 667

y2 = 676 – 667 = 9,
y = 9 =3
which is a perfect square.
 Thus, x = 26 and y = 3 and
n = x 2 – y2
667= 262 – 32
667 = (26 – 3)(26 + 3)
667= (23)(29)

Therefore,
667= 23•29
b. 533; Solution: Extract the root of n.
n =533 n = 533 23.087
We note that 232 < 533< 242.
So, take the next integer after 23, i.e., 24
Hence, if x = 24, y2 = 242 – 533
y2 = 576 – 533 = 43,
NOT a perfect square.
… if x = 27, y2 = 729 – 533 = 196,
y = 196=14
which is a perfect square.
 Thus, x = 27 and y = 14 and
n = x 2 – y2
533= 272 – 142
533 = (27 – 14)(27 + 14)
533= (13)(41)

Therefore,
533=13•41
c. 2387;
• Solution: Extract the root of n.
n =2387 n = 2387 48.8569
We note that 482 < 2387< 492.
Let 492 = x2 = t2
From (1), we compute for y2 = t2 – n, for
t = x, x + 1, x + 2, … until y2 is already a
perfect square.
Hence, if t = 49, y2 = 492 – 2387
y2 = 2401 – 2387 = 14,
NOT a perfect square.
if t = 50, y2 = 502 – 2387
y2 = 2500 – 2387 = 113,
NOT a perfect square.
if t = 51, y2 = 512 – 2387
y2 = 2601 – 2387 = 214,
NOT a perfect square.
Hence, if t = 52, y2 = 522 – 2387
y2 = 2704 – 2387 = 317,
NOT a perfect square.
if t = 53, y2 = 532 – 2387
y2 = 2809 – 2387 = 422,
NOT a perfect square.
if t = 54, y2 = 542 – 2387
y2 = 2916 – 2387 = 529,
y = 529=23
which is a perfect square.
 Thus, x = 54 and y = 23 and
n = x 2 – y2
2387 = 542 – 232
2387 = (54 – 23)(54 + 23)
2387= (31)(77)
but 77 = (7)(11);
Therefore,
c.2387=7•11•31
2.7 Positive Divisors
• Let τ(n) denote the number of positive
divisors of n and σ(n) denote the sum of
positive divisors of n.
If n = p p ...pk thenwehave
a1 a2
1 2
ak

(n) =(a1 +1)(a2 +1)...(ak +1)

(n) = p1 −
a1+1
1 • p2−
a2+1
1...• pk −
ak +1
1
p1 −1 p2 −1 pk −1
Example 2.10 Find the number of positive
divisors (τ) and the sum of positive divisors (σ) of
75.
Solution: Write n in canonical form of factorization, i.e.
p1 =3 p2 =5
n = p1a1 p2a2 ...pkak
75=3•5 2
a1 =1 a2 = 2
A. Number
of positive (75)
divisors
(n) =(a1 +1)(a2 +1)
(75) =(1+1)(2+1)
(75) =(2)(3)
(75) =6
B.Sumof positive (75)
divisors
(75) = p1
a1+1
−1 • p2
a2 +1
−1
p1 −1 p2 −1

(75) = 31+1
−1 • 5 2+1
−1
3−1 5−1
(75) = 3 2
−1 • 53
− 1
3−1 5−1
8
(75) = • 124
2 4
(75) =124
2.8 Special Number (Perfect Number)
• A natural number n is said to be perfect if
σ(n) = 2n.
• Example: 6 is a perfect number because
σ(6) = 12 = 2(6).
• Euclid’s Formula: A number n is perfect if it
satisfies the equation n = 2p – 1 (2p – 1)
where both p and 2p – 1 are primes.
• If p = 2, since 22 – 1 = 3 is prime, then
22 – 1 (22 – 1) = 2(3) = 6 is perfect
• If p = 3, since 23 – 1 = 7 is prime, then
23 – 1 (23 – 1) = 4(7) = 28 is perfect
 2.8 Special Number (Amicable Pair)
• Let S(n) denote the sum of the proper
divisors of n. Two natural numbers n and m
form an amicable pair if S (n) = m and S(m) =
n.
Example 2.11 Show that 220 & 284 are amicable
pair.

1.220= 2 •5•11
2
(220) = 22+1
−1 • 51+1
−1•
1+1
11 −1
2−1 5−1 11−1
p1 = 2 p2 =5 p3 =11 (220) =7•6•12
a1 = 2 a2 =1 a3 =1 (220) =504
S(220) = 504 – 220
S(220) = 284
1.284= 2 •71 2
(284) = 22+1
−1 •
1+1
71 −1
2−1 71−1
p1 = 2 p2 =71 (284) =7•72
a1 = 2 a2 =1 (284) =504
(284) = p1
a1+1
−1 • p2
a2 +1
−1 S(284) = 504 – 284
p1 −1 p2 −1 S(284) = 220
Since S(220) = 284 and S(284) = 220, then
220 & 284 are amicable pair.