HARAPPAN CVILIZATION

 Origins
 settlement patterns and town planning
 agrarian base
 craft production and trade
 social and political organization
 religious beliefs and practices
 art,
 the problem of urban decline
 and the late/post-Harappan traditions

QUESTIONS
Q1- WRITE AN ESSAY ON THE AGRICULTURE,CRAFT PRODUCTION AND TRADE
OF HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION?
ANS-

INTRODUCTION
The Harappan civilization covered an enormous area within which there was
great ecological variety—alluvial plains, mountains, plateaux, and sea-coasts.
The resource potential of this area was rich enough to generate the food
surpluses that are an important aspect of urbanization. The diversity of the
subsistence base may also have been an important sustaining factor—if one
food resource failed, people could turn to others. craft

AGRICULTURE
 Agriculture was the mainstay, supplemented by animal husbandry and
hunting. Riverine and marine food resources were tapped, where
available. The sources of information on the subsistence patterns of
the Harappans consist of plant remains, animal bones, artefacts, motifs
on seals and pottery, and analogies with modern practices.
 Comparatively rainless, the Indus region is not so fertile these days but
the prosperous villages and town of the past testify that it was fertile
in ancient times
 sindh was a fertile part of india around 4th century bc. In earlier times
the Indus region had more natural vegetation which contributed to
rainfall.
 Vegetation was destroyed by the extension of agriculture, large –scale
grazing and supply of fuel. Annual inundation of the Indus helped in
making region fertile.
 Floods were annual event as evident by walls made of burnt bricks
raised for protection
 Indus people sowed seeds in flood plain in November and reaped their
harvests of wheat and barley in april,before the next flood.
  No hoe or ploughshare has been discovered but furrows at kalibangan
indicate that the fields were ploughed in Rajasthan
 Harappans probably used the wooden plough drawn by oxen and
camels. Stone sickles may have been used for harvesting the crop
 In Baluchistan and Afghanistan, gabarbands or nalas enclosed by
dams for storing water were a feature
 Harappan villages mostly situated near the flood plains, sufficient
production of food grains ,not only for their inhabitants but also the
town
 Indus people produced wheat, barely, rai and peas. Two types of wheat
and barely were grown . At banawali, substantial quantity of barely
was discovered, sesamum and mustard were grown.
 At lothal, things were little different, 1800bc , the people of lothal
grew rice as evident from the remains found
 Food grains were stored in huge granaries in both mohenjo-daro and
Harappa, and in kalibangan.
 In all probability , cereals were received as taxes from peasant and
stored in granaries for the payment of wages as well as for use during
emergencies
 Indus people were the earliest people to produce cotton and because
of this the Greeks called the area SINDON which is derived from sindh
 Domestication of animals- animals were raised on a large scale. Oxen,
buffaloes, goats , sheep aand pigs were domesticated. Humped bulls,
dog and cats were favoured by the harappans, camel and asses were
bred and used as beast of burden and later used for ploughing
 Evidence of horse comes from a superficial level of mohenjo-daro and
from a doubtful terracotta figurine from lothal.
 Remains of a horse are reported from surkotada, in any case harappan
culture was not horse centred, neither the bones of a horse nor its
representations have been traced in early and mature harappan
culture.
 Elephants and rhinoceros were well known to harappans. Harappans
and Mesopotamians produced similar food grains and domesticated
animals, harappans in Gujarat produced rice

CRAFT PRODUCTION

 The rise of towns in the Indus zone was based on agricultural surplus,
the making of bronze tools and various other crafts and widespread
trade and commerce. This is known as the first urbanization in india.
 The people of Harappa used many tools and implements of stone but
they were very well familiar with the manufacture and use of bronze
 Kits used for the manufacture of bronze goods left by the harppans are
so numerous as to suggest that bronze smiths constituted an
 important group of artisans in harappan society. They produced not
only images and utensils but also various tools and weapons such as
axes , saws, knives and spears
 Several other important crafts flourished in harappan towns. A piece of
woven cotton has been recovered from mohenjo-daro and textile
impressions have been found on several objects.spindle whorls were
used for spinning
 Weavers wove cloth of wool and cotton. Huge brick structures suggest
that bricklaying was an important craft and attest to the existence of a
class of masons
 The harappans also practiced boat-making, seal making and terracotta
manufacturing were also important crafts
 Goldsmiths made jewelleries of silver, gold obtained from Afghanistan
and precious stones from south india. The harappans were also expert
bead makers. The potter’s wheel was extensively used and harappans
produced their characteristic glossy, gleaming pottery

Trade
 Numerous seals , uniform script, granaries and regulated weights and
measures show us the importance of trade in the life of harappans
 They conducted considerable trade in stone , metal , shell , etc,within
the Indus culture zone,
 Cities had no necessary raw material for the commodities they
produced, they did not use metal money and in all probability carried
exchanges through a batter system
 In return for finished goods and possibly food grains they procured
metals from the neighbouring areas by boat and bullock-cart
 They were aware with the use of the wheel, carts with solid wheels
were in use in Harappa. Harappans used a form of the modern ekka but
not with the spoked wheel
 Harappans had commercial links with rajasthan, Afghanistan and iran.
Trading colony was set up in northern Afghanistan which facilitated
trade with central asia
 Their cities also had commercial links with the people of the tigris and
the Euphrates basins. Many harappan seals have been discovered in
Mesopotamia and it appears that the harappan imitated some
cosmetics used by the urban people of Mesopotamia
 Harappans carried on long distance trade in lapis lazuli; lapis object
may have contributed to the social prestige of the ruling class
 The Mesopotamia records from about 2350 bc onwards refer to trade
relations with meluha, which was the ancient name given to Indus
region
 The Mesopotamia texts speak of two intermediate trading stations
called dilmun and makan, lay between Mesopotamia and
 meluha.dilmun is probably identifiable with Bahrain on the Persian
gulf. Thousands of graves await excavation 2in that poor city

Q2- WRITE AN ESSAY ON HARAPPAN ECONOMY

ANS
(i) Agriculture
 The prosperity of the Harappan civilization was based on its
flourishing economic activities such as agriculture, arts and
crafts, and trade.
 The availability of fertile Indus alluvium contributed to the surplus
in agricultural production. It helped the Harappan people to
indulge in exchange, both internal and external, with others and
also develop crafts and industries.
 Agriculture alongwith pastoralism (cattle-rearing) was the base
of Harappan economy. The granaries discovered at sites like
Harappa, Mohenjodaro and Lothal served as the storehouses for
grains.
 We do not have any clear evidence of the tools used for agriculture.
However, the furrows or plough-marks have been observed in a field
at Kalibangan.
 These indicate plough cultivation. A terracotta plough has also been
reported from Banawali in Hissar district of Haryana. The irrigation was
carried on a small scale by drawing water from wells or by diverting
river water into channels.
 The chief food crops included wheat, barley, sesasum, mustard, peas,
jejube, etc.
 The evidence for rice has come from Lothal and Rangpur in the form
of husks embedded in pottery. Cotton was another important crop.
 A piece of woven cloth has been found at Mohenjodaro. Apart from
cereals, fish and animal meat also formed a part of the Harappan
diet.

(ii) Industries and Crafts

 The Harappan people were aware of almost all the metals except iron. They
manufactured gold and silver objects. The gold objects include beads,
armlets, needles and other ornaments. But the use of silver was more
common than gold.
 A large number of silver ornaments, dishes, etc. have been discovered. A
number of copper tools and weapons have also been discovered. The
common tools included axe, saws, chisels, knives, spearheads and
arrowheads.
 It is important to note that the weapons produced by the Harappans were
mostly defensive in nature as there is no evidence of weapons like swords,
etc.
 Stone tools were also commonly used. Copper was brought mainly from
Khetri in Rajasthan. Gold might have been obtained from the Himalayan
river-beds and South India, and silver from Mesopotamia. We also have the
evidence of the use of the bronze though in limited manner
 . The most famous specimen in this regard is the bronze ‘dancing girl’ figurine
discovered at Mohenjodaro. (Fig 3.3) It is a nude female figure, with right arm
on the hip and left arm hanging in a dancing pose. She is wearing a large
number of bangles.
 Bead-making also was an important craft. Beads were made of precious
and semiprecious stones such as agate and carnelian. Steatite was used for
making beads.
 The evidence of beadmakers’ shops have been found at Chanhudaro and
Lothal. Gold and silver beads have also been found. Ivory carving and
inlaying used in beads, bracelets and other decorations were also in
practice. The Harappans thus showed their masterly skill in a variety of arts
and crafts.

 A well-known piece of art of the Harappan period is a stone sculpture

of a bearded man discovered at Mohenjodaro. (Fig 3.4) His eyes are
half closed indicating a posture of meditation.

 Across the left shoulder is an embroidered cloak. In the opinion of

some scholars it could be a bust of a priest. A large number of
terracotta figurines of males and females have been discovered from
various Harappan sites.

 (Fig 3.5) The female figurines outnumber those of males and are
believed to represent the worship of mother goddess. Besides these, a
variety of models of birds, monkeys, dogs, sheep, cattle, humped and
humpless bulls are found.

 However, the noteworthy specimen in this regard are various models

of terracotta carts. Pottery-making was also an important industry in
the Harappan period.

 These were chiefly wheel-made and were treated with a red coating
and had decorations in black. These are found in various sizes and
shapes.

 The painted designs consist of horizontal lines of varied thickness, leaf

patterns, palm and pipal trees. Birds, fishes and animals are also
depicted on potteries.
 The Harappans manufactured seals of various kinds. More than two
thousand seals have been discovered from different sites. These were
generally square in shape and were made of steatite. It is noteworthy
that while the seals depict a number of

 Animals there is no representation of horse on these. It has led many

scholars to argue that horse was not known to the Harappan people
though there are others who do not accept this argument.

 Besides various kinds of animals, the Harappan seals contain some

signs in the Harappan script which however has not been deciphered
so far. The most famous of the seals is the one with a horned male
deity represented on it.

 He has three heads and is sitting in a yogic posture surrounded by four

animals viz elephant, tiger, rhinoceros and a buffalo. He has been
identified by many scholars with the ancient form of the god
Pashupati (Lord of beasts) though there are others who dispute this
identification

(iii) Trade
 Trading network, both internal (within the country) and external
(foreign), was a significant feature of the urban economy of the
Harappans.
 As the urban population had to depend on the surrounding
countryside for the supply of food and many other necessary
products, there emerged a village-town (rural-urban)
interrelationship.
 Similarly, the urban craftsmen needed markets to sell their
goods in other areas. It led to the contact between the towns.
The traders also established contacts with foreign lands
particularly Mesopotamia where these goods were in demand.
 It is important to note that various kinds of metals and precious
stones were needed by craftsmen to make goods, but as these
were not available locally they had to be brought from outside.
 The presence of such raw material found at sites away from the
place of its origin naturally indicates it must have reached there
through an exchange activity.
 Thus Rajasthan region is rich in copper deposits and the
Harappans acquired copper mainly from the Khetri mines
located here.
  Kolar gold fields of Karnataka and the river-beds of the
Himalayan rivers might have supplied the gold. The source of
silver may have been Jwar mines of Rajasthan.
 It is believed that it must have also come from Mesopotamia in
exchange for the Harappan goods. Among the precious stones
used for making beads, the source of lapis-lazuli was located in
Badakshan mines in northeast Afghanistan.
 Turquoise and Jade might have been brought from Central Asia.
Western India supplied agate, chalcedony and carnelian.
 The seashells must have come from Gujarat and neighbouring
coastal areas. Timber of good quality and other forest products
were perhaps obtained from the northern regions such as
Jammu.
 The Harappans were engaged in external trade with
Mesopotamia. It was largely through Oman and Behrain in the
Persian Gulf.
 It is confirmed by the presence of Harappan artefacts such as
beads, seals, dice etc. in these regions. Though the artefacts
from those regions are rarely found at the Harappan sites, a seal
of West Asian or Persian origin has been discovered at Lothal
which confirms this contact.
 Mesopotamian cities like Susa, Ur, etc. have yielded about two
dozen of Harappan seals. Besides seals, other artefacts of
Harappan origin which have been discovered include potteries,
etched carnelian beads and dices with Harappan features.
 The inscriptional evidence from Mesopotamia also provides us
with valuable information on Harappan contact with
Mesopotamia.
 These inscriptions refer to trade with Dilmun, Magan and
Meluhha. Scholars have identified Meluhha with Harappan
region, Magan with the Makran coast, and Dilmun with Bahrain.
 They indicate that Mesopotamia imported copper, carnelian,
ivory, shell, lapis-lazuli, pearls and ebony from Meluhha.
 The export from Mesopotamia to Harappans included items
such as garments, wool, perfumes, leather products and sliver.
Except silver all these products are perishable. This may be one
important reason why we do not find the remains of these goods
at Harappan sites

Q3-IDENTIFY THE URBAN TRAITS OF HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION WITH SPECIAL

REFERENCE TO TRADE AND TOWN PLANNING
ANS- Trade

 Trading network, both internal (within the country) and external

(foreign), was a significant feature of the urban economy of the
Harappans.
 As the urban population had to depend on the surrounding
countryside for the supply of food and many other necessary
products, there emerged a village-town (rural-urban)
interrelationship.
 Similarly, the urban craftsmen needed markets to sell their
goods in other areas. It led to the contact between the towns.
The traders also established contacts with foreign lands
particularly Mesopotamia where these goods were in demand.
 It is important to note that various kinds of metals and precious
stones were needed by craftsmen to make goods, but as these
were not available locally they had to be brought from outside.
 The presence of such raw material found at sites away from the
place of its origin naturally indicates it must have reached there
through an exchange activity.
 Thus Rajasthan region is rich in copper deposits and the
Harappans acquired copper mainly from the Khetri mines
located here.
 Kolar gold fields of Karnataka and the river-beds of the
Himalayan rivers might have supplied the gold. The source of
silver may have been Jwar mines of Rajasthan.
 It is believed that it must have also come from Mesopotamia in
exchange for the Harappan goods. Among the precious stones
used for making beads, the source of lapis-lazuli was located in
Badakshan mines in northeast Afghanistan.
 Turquoise and Jade might have been brought from Central Asia.
Western India supplied agate, chalcedony and carnelian.
 The seashells must have come from Gujarat and neighbouring
coastal areas. Timber of good quality and other forest products
were perhaps obtained from the northern regions such as
Jammu.
 The Harappans were engaged in external trade with
Mesopotamia. It was largely through Oman and Behrain in the
Persian Gulf.
 It is confirmed by the presence of Harappan artefacts such as
beads, seals, dice etc. in these regions. Though the artefacts
from those regions are rarely found at the Harappan sites, a seal
of West Asian or Persian origin has been discovered at Lothal
which confirms this contact.
  Mesopotamian cities like Susa, Ur, etc. have yielded about two
dozen of Harappan seals. Besides seals, other artefacts of
Harappan origin which have been discovered include potteries,
etched carnelian beads and dices with Harappan features.
 The inscriptional evidence from Mesopotamia also provides us
with valuable information on Harappan contact with
Mesopotamia.
 These inscriptions refer to trade with Dilmun, Magan and
Meluhha. Scholars have identified Meluhha with Harappan
region, Magan with the Makran coast, and Dilmun with Bahrain.
 They indicate that Mesopotamia imported copper, carnelian,
ivory, shell, lapis-lazuli, pearls and ebony from Meluhha.
 The export from Mesopotamia to Harappans included items
such as garments, wool, perfumes, leather products and sliver.
Except silver all these products are perishable. This may be one
important reason why we do not find the remains of these goods
at Harappan sites

TOWN PLANNING

 Harappan towns and villages varied in terms of size and function. The general layout of
the towns was similar. Some cities such as Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Dholavira and
Rakhigarhi were monumental in their dimensions.
 Each town was divided into two parts. To the west was a raised citadel based on mound
and fortified by crenellated walls where the rulers stayed. However, in Kalibangan both
the citadel as well as the lower city were fortified.
 In the citadel, the public buildings were erected which might have functioned as
administrative or ritual centres.
 The lower city contained residential areas. The main streets ran from north to south and
cut at right angles, thus dividing the city into rectangular blocks. This was the grid
pattern.
 The streets and buildings were provided with drains made of burnt bricks at
Mohenjodaro and Harappa as well as at several sites, while Kalibangan used mud
bricks.
 In settlements such as Kot Diji and Amri in Sind there was no fortification. The site of
Lothal in Gujarat did not have any internal division of the settlement into citadel and
lower town.
 Along the eastern side of the town, a brick basin has been discovered which was
identified as a dockyard. Baked and unbaked bricks of standard size were used by the
Harappans thus showing an organized industry on a large scale.
  The drainage system is one of the most impressive achievements of the Harappans.
Waste water from houses would pass through chutes connected with public drains
aligned to the margin of the streets, thus indicating the presence of civic administration.

IMPORTANT BUILDINGS

 The citadel areas in Harappa, Mohenjodaro and Kalibangan contained monumental

buildings such as the famous Great Bath of Mohenjodaro.
 It is a rectangular tank which measures 12 metres by 7 metres and is about 3 metres
deep. It is made up of bricks and has a flight of steps leading to the bottom at the north
and south ends.
 The bed of the Bath is covered with bitumen to make it watertight. Water was supplied
by a large well in an adjacent room and there was a corbelled drain for disgorging water
too.
 The bath was surrounded by porticoes and sets of rooms. Scholars suggest it was built
for the purpose of ritual bathing of the rulers or the priests.
 The other important structure in the citadel of Mohenjodaro is the granary. It consists of
27 blocks of brickwork criss-crossed by ventilation channels. There were brick loading
bays below the granary, from which grains could be raised into the citadel for storage.
 Another structure has been identified as the residence of a very high official. It was an
open court of 33 feet square on to which three verandas opened.
 Another significant building was an assembly hall. It had four rows of five brick plinths
upon which wooden columns were erected.
 A seated male statue was found in the row of rooms to the west of it, which signifies
some kind of prayer hall.
 Among the important buildings of Harappa is the Great Granary. It consisted of a series
of brick platforms on which stood two rows of six granaries.
 Circular brick platforms to their south were meant for threshing grain as chaffs of wheat
and barley were found in the crevices of the floors. In Kalibangan, brick platforms have
also been found. On one of them, a row of seven ‘fire altars’ was found, as well as a pit
containing animal bones and antlers.

HOUSING PATTERN

 Houses of varying sizes were found. It ranged from single-room tenements meant for
slaves to houses having 12 rooms with courtyards for the rich.
 The rectangular courtyard was surrounded by the rooms. The bigger houses also had
private wells and toilets. This shows that there was a class difference in the society.
 The entrances to the houses were from the narrow lanes which cut the streets at right
angles. There were no windows towards the main street.
 The bathrooms were connected by drains with sewers under the main streets. The
drains were covered either with bricks or stone slabs and there were manholes in
between which were also covered. Thus, the town planning of the Harappan civilization
had uniformities as well as differences.
Q4- Review the social,organization and religion beliefs and practices in the
urban phase of harappan civilization

ANS - Social Organization

 Excavations indicate a hierarchy in urban habitation. Although only two

localities are attributed to the city of Harappa, its structure evidences
three distinct localities, and the latter is true also of Kalibangan and
Dholavira.
 The citadel or the first locality was where the ruling class lived and the
lowest tower was where the common people dwelt.
 The middle settlement may have been meant for bureaucrats and
middle-class merchants.
 However, whether hierarchy in settlements corresponded to
occupational divisions or socio-economic differentiation is not clear. There
is no doubt that the same city was inhabited by different housing groups
which were not of the same size.
 Social differentiation is indicated by different residential structures, with
the number of rooms varying from one to twelve.
 The city of Harappa had two-roomed houses, probably meant for artisans
and labourers.

Religious Practices
 In Harappa numerous terracotta figurines of women have been found. In
one figurine, a plant is shown growing out of the embryo of a woman. The
image probably represents the goddess of earth, and was intimately
connected with the origin and growth of plants.
 The Harappans, therefore, looked upon the earth as a fertility goddess
and worshipped her in the same way as the Egyptians worshipped the
Nile goddess Isis.
 We do not, however, know whether the Harappans were a matriarchal
people like the Egyptians.
 In Egypt, the daughter inherited the throne or property, but we do not
know about the nature of inheritance in Harappan society.
 Some Vedic texts indicate a reverence for the earth goddess, although
she is not given any prominence. It took a long time for the worship of the
supreme goddess to develop on a large scale in Hinduism.
  Only from the sixth century AD onwards are various mother goddesses
such as Durga, Amba, Kali, and Chandi are regarded as such in the
Puranas and in tantra literature.
 In the course of time, every village came to have its own separate
goddess.
The Male Deity in the Indus Valley
 The male deity is represented on a seal. This god has three-horned heads,
and is represented in the sitting posture of a yogi, with one leg placed
above the other.
 This god is surrounded by an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros, and below
his throne there is a buffalo, and at his feet two deer.
 The god so depicted is identified as Pashupati Mahadeva, but the
identification is doubtful because the bull is not represented here and
horned gods also figure in other ancient civilizations.
 We also encounter the prevalence of the phallus worship, which in later
times became so intimately connected with Shiva. Numerous symbols of
the phallus and female sex organs made of stone have been found in
Harappa, and were possibly meant for worship.
 The Rig Veda speaks of non-Aryan people who were phallus worshippers.
 Phallus worship thus begun in the days of Harappa was later recognized
as a respectable form of worship in Hindu society.
Tree and Animal Worship
 The people of the Indus region also worshipped trees. The depiction of a
deity is represented on a seal amidst branches of the pipal. This tree
continues to be worshipped to this day.
 Animals were also worshipped in Harappan times, and many of them are
represented on seals. The most important of them is the onehorned animal
unicorn which may be identified with the rhinoceros.
 Next in importance is the humped bull. Even today, when such a bull
passes through the market streets, pious Hindus give way to it. Similarly, the
animals surrounding ‘Pashupati Mahadeva’ indicate that these were
worshipped.
 Evidently, therefore, the inhabitants of the Indus region worshipped gods
in the form of trees, animals, and human beings, but the gods were not
placed in temples, a practice that was common in ancient Egypt and
Mesopotamia.
 Nor can we say anything about the religious beliefs of the Harappans
without being able to read their script.
 Amulets have been found in large numbers. In all probability, the
Harappans believed that ghosts and evil forces were capable of harming
them and, therefore, they used amulets against them.
 The Atharva Veda, which is associated with the non-Aryan tradition,
contains many charms and spells, and recommends amulets to ward off
diseases and evil forces.
Q5 . Explain the various theories on the decline of harappan civilization

 Scholars have given different views on the question of the decline of the
Harappan civilization.
 According to some, it collapsed suddenly due to a calamity of
catastrophic proportions, which wiped out the urban communities.
Different reasons have been given to support this view.

THE ARYAN INVASION THEORY

 The invasion theory was first propagated by Ramaprasad Chanda but

later he changed his mind; the theory was elaborated by Mortimer
Wheeler.
 He believed that the Harappans were killed by the hypothetical Aryans.
Wheeler argued that the references to various kinds of forts in the Rig
Veda, attacks on walled cities and the epithet Purandra (fort destroyer)
given to the god Indra must have a historical basis.
 He identified the place called Hariyupiya in the Rig Veda with Harappa.
 This place was located on the bank of the river Ravi, where the Aryans
fought a battle. Wheeler also points out certain skeletal remains found at
Mohenjodaro as proof of the Aryan massacre in the later phases of
occupation and that the Cemetery-H culture represented the culture of
the Aryan invaders.
 Later, he changed his mind and also acknowledged that other factors
such as floods, decline of trade and over-utilization of natural resources
must have also played a role in the decline.
 Many scholars such as P.V. Kane, George Dales and B. B. Lal have
refuted this theory. The arguments given were that the time period of Rig
Veda was uncertain and there is no evidence of a military attack or
conflict in the archaeological records.
 There are no skeletal remains at the place where the supposed battle
had taken place and also there is the presence of a sterile layer between
the mature Harappan and Cemetery-H culture sites, thus proving that
there was no invasion.
 Also the provisional date for the decline of the Harappan civilization is
believed to be 1800 BCE and the Aryans are believed to have arrived
here not earlier than a period around 1500 BCE.
THE NATURAL DISASTER THEORY

 Among the causes spelled out for the decline of the Harappan
civilization, scholars have used the evidence of flooding in
Mohenjodaro.
 Several layers of silt are found in Mohenjodaro which give evidence
of the city being affected by a repeated number of floods.
 According to M. R. Sahni, R. L. Raikes and G. F. Dales, the floods at
Mohenjodaro were the result of tectonic movements.
 This movement caused the uplifting of the plain along an axis
roughly at right angles to the Indus river, thus causing the formation
of a gigantic pond of waters in the area where the city had
flourished.
 But this theory has been criticized by many scholars. According to
H. T. Lambrick, even if an earthquake artificially raised a bund
downstream, the large volume of Indus water would easily breach
it.
 This fails to explain the decline of the settlements outside the Indus
system. Also, Lambrick gives the change of course of the Indus river
as the reason for the sudden decline of Mohenjodaro.
 Indus was an unstable river system which kept shifting its bed. So
once it shifted its course, the city had scarcity of water due to
which food production reduced and the people deserted the
area.
 This happened many times in the history of Mohenjodaro.
However, this theory also had problems as it does not explain the
decline of the Harappan civilization in totality.
 At most, it can explain only the desertion of Mohenjodaro. Also, if
people were aware of the kind of disaster the river caused, they
should have shifted to a new settlement and established a city
similar to Mohenjodaro.
 Another cause given for the decline of Harappan sites is the
gradual desiccation in the Ghaggar–Hakra valley.
 According to D. P. Agarwal, the Ghaggar was a mighty river
flowing through Punjab, Rajasthan and the Rann of Kutch before
falling into the sea.
 The Sutlej and the Yamuna rivers used to be its tributaries, but
because of some tectonic disturbances, the Sutlej river joined the
 Indus river, and the Yamuna river moved to join the Ganga river in
the east, thus leading to the drying up of the Ghaggar river.
 The ecological imbalances brought about by the increased aridity
and the shift in the drainage pattern led to the decline of the
Harappan civilization.
 The impact of the Harappans on their environment is also a factor
of decline.
 Over-exploitation, over-grazing and excessive felling of trees for
fuel and farming might have led to decline in soil fertility and an
increase of floods.
 According to Fairservis, civilization declined because the
environmental resources of the time could not support the growing
population of the people and their cattle.
 Shereen Ratnagar has argued that the decline in the lapis lazuli
trade with Mesopotamia was a factor in the decline of the
Harappan civilization.
 Archaeological evidences point towards a gradual devolution and
not a sudden decline of the Harappan civilization.
 There are many Late Harappan sites such as the Jhukar culture at
Jhukar, Chanhudaro and Amri, Cemetery-H culture in the
Ghaggar-Hakra valley, Rojdi in Saurashtra and the other
settlements in Punjab, Haryana, western UP, northern Rajasthan and
Gujarat, which continued with some changes that were brought
about due to the changing environment and needs of the people

Q6 Discuss the recent excavations in india that throw light on our ancient
times and the harappan civilization

ANS- ANSWER ON PAGE 12 DEEPA GUIDE

Q7- . Describe two social and economic life of the harappan civilization
ANS

ANSWER ON PAGE 37 DEEPA GUIDE

Social Organization
 Excavations indicate a hierarchy in urban habitation. Although only two
localities are attributed to the city of Harappa, its structure evidences
three distinct localities, and the latter is true also of Kalibangan and
Dholavira.
 The citadel or the first locality was where the ruling class lived and the
lowest tower was where the common people dwelt.
 The middle settlement may have been meant for bureaucrats and
middle-class merchants.
 However, whether hierarchy in settlements corresponded to
occupational divisions or socio-economic differentiation is not clear. There
is no doubt that the same city was inhabited by different housing groups
which were not of the same size.
 Social differentiation is indicated by different residential structures, with
the number of rooms varying from one to twelve.
 The city of Harappa had two-roomed houses, probably meant for artisans
and labourers

ORIGIN

Q8 Analyse the various views on the origin of the Harappan civilization.

ANS
 According to John Marshall, the Indus civilization must have had a
long antecedent history on the soil of India, but there are other
scholars who project the theory of diffusion for the origin.
 Earlier, the Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures of the northwestern
region were said to be pre-Harappan but with time, as more
researches came up, the archaeologists changed their views.
 Historians such as R. Mughal, Kenoyer and Meadow preferred the
name ‘early Harappan’ instead of ‘pre-Harappan’.
 The diffusionist position is often taken from the view expressed by
Gordon Childe that the idea of civilization diffuses from one
particular centre or region to faraway regions, thus overlooking the
possibilities of any indigenous factors.
 E. J. H. Mackay talks about a migration of people from Sumer to
the Indian subcontinent which led to the rise of the Indus civilization.
 According to Mortimer Wheeler, there was a migration of ideas
and not people, that is to say, the idea of civilization moved from
 West Asia in the third millennium BCE and the founders of the
Harappan civilization had a model before them.
 The emergence of city life in Mesopotamia a few centuries before
the rise of the Harappan civilization led to such thoughts. But we
find several striking differences between these two civilizations.
 The Mesopotamians had a completely different script, a much
greater use of bronze, different settlement layouts and a large-scale
canal system.
 The diffusionist theory or view can be rejected on the basis that the
diffusion of ideas and people can only be successfully adopted in
the new region if the people and its environment are ready to
accept them.
 Also, the needs and accepting capacity of a culture should be
taken into account.
 However, the criticism of diffusionist theories should not mean that
cultures never influenced each other but it all depends on the
needs and receiving capacity of the cultures.
 In recent times, the focus has shifted to indigenous developments
or the processual model.
 The term ‘early Harappan period’ has been coined by scholars to
establish that this was the formative time of the Harappan
civilization when certain trends of cultural unification are in
evidence.
 It can be traced from the emergence of settled farming
communities in Baluchistan in the seventh millennium BCE to its
more immediate cultural phase found at Kot Diji.
 Amalananda Ghosh was the first archaeologist to identify the
similarities between pre-Harappan culture and the mature
Harappan culture.
 He focused on the pre-Harappan Sothi culture of Rajasthan. He
asserted that there were similarities between the Sothi pottery and
the pottery of Zhob, Quetta and other sites of the Baluchistan
region, pre-Harappan Kalibangan, Kot Diji, and the lowest levels of
Harappa and Mohenjodaro and the mature levels at Kalibangan
and perhaps also at Kot Diji.
 However, his views were debatable as he based his hypothesis
completely on the pottery, ignoring the differences between the
two cultures.
 A comprehensive analysis of the evidences from pre-Harappan
sites in the Indus valley and north Baluchistan was made by M. R.
Mughal.
 He took into consideration the pottery, stone tools, metal artefacts
and architecture. Shereen Ratnagar viewed the Indus -
 Mesopotamian trade to be the cause of the rise and the decline of
the Harappan civilization.
 However, these theories are difficult to accept as there is no
substantial evidence to support them.
 Archaeological evidences prove that the Harappan civilization
represents the culmination of a long process of evolution of the
agricultural and semi-nomadic communities.
 Mundigak, Damb Sadaat, Anjira, Togau and Balakot are the
important early Harappan sites in the Baluchistan region. These sites
have defensive walls made of sun-dried bricks and have large
houses.
 Also a variety of potteries with decorations showing birds, ibex and
bulls are found which gives us some idea of the early Harappan
societies.
 Amri, Kot Diji, Mehrgarh, Rahman Dheri, Sarai Khola, Tarkai Qila,
Kalibangan and Rakhigarhi are found in the Indus region.
 These sites too show evidence of the early Harappan period; for
example, the site at Amri has evidence of some kind of granary and
pottery with painted animal motifs which resembled humped Indian
bulls.
 This motif was popular during the ‘mature Harappan’ phase.
 Similarly, evidences of wheel-thrown pottery from Kot Diji, lapis lazuli
beads from Mehrgarh, planned houses, streets and lanes from
Rahman Dheri, and mud-brick houses and ploughed field surfaces
from Kalibangan are evidences of early Harappan period.
 Thus, the theories which have been given on account of the rise of
the Harappan civilization have their own merits and demerits and
should be studied under the light of the archaeological findings

Write short notes on

A. Harappan pottery page 45 deepa guide

B. Art and architecture of harappan civilization page 46 deepa guide
Q Harappan society Compare between the Indus valley and Aryan culture
Ans page 42 deepa guide

Polity
 As the Harappan culture is more or less uniform over a large area, a
central authority may have contributed to this. We may identify
some important elements of the state in the Indus Valley.
 The Arthashastra of Kautilya considers sovereignty, ministers,
populated territory, forts, treasury, force, and friends to be the
organs of the state.
 In the Harappan culture, the citadel may have been the seat of
sovereign power, the middle town may have been the area where
the bureaucrats lived or the seat of government, and the great
granary at Mohenjodaro may have been the treasury.
 It appears that taxes were collected in grain.
 Also, the entire Harappan area was a well-populated territory.
Fortification was a feature of several cities.
 Dholavira, in particular, had forts within forts. We have no clear
idea of an organized force or standing army,
 but a heap of sling stones and the depiction of a soldier on a
potsherd at Surkotada may suggest a standing army.
 In any case, the state was well established in the mature Harappan
phase.
 In sharp contrast to Egypt and Mesopotamia, no temples have
been found at any Harappan site.
 No religious structures of any kind have been excavated apart
from the great bath, which may have been used for ablution.
 It would, therefore, be wrong to think that priests ruled in Harappa
as they did in the cities of lower Mesopotamia.
 The Harappan rulers were more concerned with commerce than
with conquest, and Harappa was possibly ruled by a class of
merchants.However, the Harappans did not have many weapons
which might mean the lack of an effective warrior class.

 The Harappan Script

 The Harappans invented the art of writing like the people of
ancient Mesopotamia.
 Although the earliest specimen of the Harappan script was
discovered in 1853 and the complete script by 1923, it has
yet to be deciphered.
 Some scholars try to connect it with the Dravidian or the
proto-Dravidian language, others with Sanskrit, and yet
others with the Sumerian language, but none of these
readings is satisfactory.
 As the script has not been deciphered, we can neither judge
the Harappan contribution to literature, nor say anything
about their ideas and beliefs.
 There are nearly 4000 specimens of Harappan writing on
stone seals and other objects. Unlike the Egyptians and
Mesopotamians, the Harappans did not write long
inscriptions.
 Most inscriptions were recorded on seals and contain only a
few words. These seals may have been used by the
propertied to mark and identify their private property.
 Altogether we have about 250 to 400 pictographs, and in the
form of a picture each letter stands for some sound, idea, or
object.
 The Harappan script is not alphabetical but largely
pictographic.
 Attempts have been made to compare it with the
contemporary scripts of Mesopotamia and Egypt, but it is the
indigenous product of the Indus region and does not indicate
any connection with the scripts of western Asia.

FOR MORE PLEASE REFER TO R S SHARMA’S BOOK ANCIENT INDIA

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