Welding Fundamentals 3

1
WELDING
FUNDAMENTALS
PARTHA DAS
(3rd edition)
Welding Fundamentals
Partha Das
2
Contents
 1.0 Welding processes
 2.0 Types of welded joints
 3.0 Welding Metallurgy
 4.0 Welding defects
 5.0 Chemical reactions in welding with gas
 6.0 Welding distortion
 7.0 Welding of metals and their alloys
 8.0 Pre-heating and post-weld heat treatment
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1.0 Welding processes
Welding is a process by which a permanent joint is made by establishing interatomic

bonds between two or more pieces or members as they are heated locally or all over, or
by subjecting them to plastic deformation, or by using both heat and plastic deformation.
To obtain satisfactory weld it is desired to have following;

 A source of energy to create joint by fusion or pressure.
 A method for removing surface contaminant.
 A method for protecting metal from atmospheric contamination.
 Control of weld metallurgy
Many different energy sources can be used for welding, including a gas flame, an electric
arc, a laser, an electron beam, friction, and ultrasound.
Surface contaminants may be absorbed gases, organic films and chemical compounds of
the base metals (mostly oxides). Heats when used as a source of energy, effectively
removes organic films and absorbed gases, only oxide films need to be cleaned. Fluxes
are used to clean the oxide films and other contaminants to form slags, which floats and
solidifies above the weld bead protecting weld bead from further oxidation.
To protect metal from atmospheric contamination (mostly oxygen and nitrogen) some
inert shielding gases are used. These gases can be Argon, Helium or carbon dioxide or
combination of these gases. Carbon dioxide gases are also produced when fluxes are
burnt along with the consumables.
After the weld metal solidification, the micro-structure of weld and heat effected zone
determine the mechanical properties of the weld joint. Pre-heating and post weld heat
treatment can be used to control the microstructure of the weld and heat effected zone
and as a result mechanical properties can be controlled. During welding de-oxidants and
alloying elements are added to control the weld metal properties.
Welding processes are classified into following.
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The welding processes, in their official groupings, are shown below. This table also
shows the letter designation for each process. The letter designation assigned to the
process can be used for identification on drawings, tables, etc. Allied and related
processes include adhesive bonding, thermal spraying, and thermal cutting.
Welding processes and letter designation.

Group Welding Process Letter Designation
Arc welding Carbon Arc CAW
Flux Cored Arc FCAW
Gas Metal Arc GMAW
Gas Tungsten Arc GTAW
Plasma Arc PAW
Shielded Metal Arc SMAW
Stud Arc SW
Submerged Arc SAW
Brazing Diffusion Brazing DFB
Dip Brazing DB
Furnace Brazing FB
Induction Brazing IB
Infrared Brazing IRB
Resistance Brazing RB
Torch Brazing TB
Oxyfuel Gas Welding Oxyacetylene Welding OAW
Oxyhydrogen Welding OHW
Pressure Gas Welding PGW
Resistance Welding Flash Welding FW
High Frequency Resistance HFRW
Percussion Welding PEW
Projection Welding RPW
Resistance-Seam Welding RSEW
Resistance-Spot Welding RSW
Upset Welding UW
Solid State Welding Cold Welding CW
Diffusion Welding DFW
Explosion Welding EXW
Forge Welding FOW
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Friction Welding FRW

Hot Pressure Welding HPW
Roll Welding ROW
Ultrasonic Welding USW
Soldering Dip Soldering DS
Furnace Soldering FS
Induction Soldering IS
Infrared Soldering IRS
Iron Soldering INS
Resistance Soldering RS
Torch Soldering TS
Wave Soldering WS
Other Welding Processes Electron Beam EBW
Electroslag ESW
Induction IW
Laser Beam LBW
Thermit TW
1.1 Arc welding

The source of heat in this welding process is an electric arc. The arc for this welding is a
stable electric discharge occuring in the air (or gas) gap between either a pair of
electrodes or an electrode and the work piece being welded.
An electric arc is generated by a suitably designed electric circuit which includes a power
source. In welding on alternating current, the arc is generated with the aid of welding
transformer. In welding on direct current, the source may be a welding converter, an
engine driven DC generator, or a welding transformer rectifier.
There are two types of electrodes; consumable electrodes and non-consumable

electrodes. With consumable electrodes, the weld is made by melting the electrode and
the base metal. With non-consumable electrodes, the weld is made by melting the base
metals only.
As the arc burns and melts the base and the electrodes, it is imperative to shield the weld
pool against exposure to atmospheric gases (oxygen, nitrigen, hydrogen etc) to avoid
their interaction with the molten weld pool impairing the quality of the weld. The shield
is maintained around the arc zone which includes the electrode tip, the arc, and the
molten pool. The manner in which shielding is accomplished; arc welding is classified
into following.
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 Covered electrode arc welding.

 Flux cored arc welding.
 Inert gas shielded arc welding.
 Submerged arc welding.
 Electroslag welding
 Vapour shielded arc welding and their combinations.
Electrode coatings contain both slag-forming ingradients which produce a fluid coating
over the weld as it cools, and gas forming materials, which generate an atmoshpere of
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and hydrogen around the arc. It must be noted,
however, the reason for using coated electrodes in the first instance was stabilisation of
the arc. This was achieved by including materials which would produce ionisation and
consequently a steady current through the arc. The principal materials used in electrode
coatings are.
 Cellulose coatings: It contains mainly of cellulose types materials. The function

of this is to produce a gas shield of carbon monoxide on combustion. Thus an
atmoshere of reducing gas surrounds the molten metal as it is carried from
electrode to the weld pool. Since the atmoshpere is stongly reducing it is possible
to include alloying elements in electrode coating either as ferro-alloys or as
oxides.
 Silica (SiO2): Which combine with metallic oxides present to form a fusible slag.
 Titanium oxide (TiO2): This is added to stabilise the arc. The high affinity of
titanium for nitrogen reduces the tendency for nitrides to form in the weld.
 Calcium carbonate (CaCO3): As limestone. This decomposes to form lime, CaO
and hence a basic slag.
 Calcium Fluoride (CaF2) as flouspar: This increases slag fluidity.
 Sodium oxide (NaO2): This acts as a binder for coating and also promotes
fluidity in the resulting slag. This combines with some of the silicon as silicates.
 Ferro-silicon: It acts as a deoxidant.
 Iron powder: it increases rate of deposition along with improving arc behaviour.
The function of the slag produced by the coating is not only to protect the weld metal
from oxidation but also to act as a flux which dissolves oxides and other impurities
already present in the molten pool of weld metal. Apart from that, by virtue of surface
tension, it helps produce smoother contour of weld metal. The slag must have high
fluidity to enable it to rise quickly to the surface of the weld metal during solidification
preventing trapping of slag particles in the weld metal.
To supply the electrical energy necessary for arc welding processes, a number of different
power supplies can be used. The most common classification is constant current power
supplies and constant voltage power supplies. In arc welding, the length of the arc is
directly related to the voltage, and the amount of heat input is related to the current.
Constant current power supplies are most often used for manual welding processes such
as gas tungsten arc welding and shielded metal arc welding, because they maintain a
relatively constant current even as the voltage varies. This is important because in manual
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welding, it can be difficult to hold the electrode perfectly steady, and as a result, the arc
length and thus voltage tend to fluctuate. Constant voltage power supplies hold the
voltage constant and vary the current, and as a result, are most often used for automated
welding processes such as gas metal arc welding, flux cored arc welding, and submerged
arc welding. In these processes, arc length is kept constant, since any fluctuation in the
distance between the wire and the base material is quickly rectified by a large change in
current. For example, if the wire and the base material get too close, the current will
rapidly increase, which in turn causes the heat to increase and the tip of the wire to melt,
returning it to its original separation distance.
The type of current used in arc welding also plays an important role in welding.
Consumable electrode processes such as shielded metal arc welding(SMAW) and gas
metal arc welding(GMAW) generally use direct current, but the electrode can be charged
either positively or negatively. In welding, the positively charged electrode will have a
greater heat concentration, and as a result, changing the polarity of the electrode has an
impact on weld properties. If the electrode is positively charged, the base metal will be
hotter, increasing weld penetration and welding speed. Alternatively, a negatively
charged electrode results in more shallow welds. Nonconsumable electrode processes,
such as gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), can use either type of direct current, as well
as alternating current. However, with direct current, because the electrode only creates
the arc and does not provide filler material, a positively charged electrode causes shallow
welds, while a negatively charged electrode makes deeper welds. Alternating current
rapidly moves between these two, resulting in medium-penetration welds
Welding electrode is mainly classified into two broad categories:
 Non-consumable electrodes
 Consumable electrodes
Non-consumable electrodes are those which do not melt away or consumed during the
welding process. These electrodes involves the use of high melting point materials such
as carbon, pure tungsten or alloy tungsten.
Consumable electrodes are low melting point electrodes. When electrode and job is
struck, the arc starts to melt the end of the electrode. The molten electrode is transferred
to the job in the form of metal droplets.
The American Welding Society (AWS) numbering system has specified stick electrode
designation including what application it works best in and how it should be used to
maximize performance. How the numbering system works has been demonstrated below.
Let us take a case of a rod printed with "E7018". The breakdown of these figures is as
follows:
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E – Indicates that it's an electrode.
70- Indicates the strength of the welded joint and this is measured in KSI unit.
1 - Indicates the welding position that the rod can be used in.
8 - Indicates the type of flux coating, the amount of penetration and the type of current
that can be used.
For welding position "1" designates an all position electrode, "2" is for flat and horizontal
positions only; while "4" indicates an electrode that can be used for flat, horizontal,
vertical down and overhead.
Details of last digit are as follow
Digit Type of Coating Welding Current

0 High cellulose sodium DC+
1 High cellulose potassium AC, DC+ or DC-
2 High titania sodium AC, DC-
3 High titania potassium AC, DC+
4 Iron powder, titania AC, DC+ or DC-
5 Low hydrogen sodium DC+
6 Low hydrogen potassium AC, DC+
7 High iron oxide, iron powder AC, DC+ or DC-
8 Low hydrogen potassium, iron powder AC, DC+ or DC-
An electrode may have additional numbers after it such as E8018-B2H4R. In this case,
the "B2" indicates chemical composition (for alloy steels) of the weld metal deposit. The
"H4" is the diffusible hydrogen designator, which indicates the maximum diffusible
hydrogen level obtained with the product. And "R" stands for the moisture resistant
designator to indicate the electrode's ability to meet specific low moisture pickup limits
under controlled humidification tests.
Sometimes there is an extra bit on the end. Eg: E7018-1.Which indicates increased
toughness (impact strength) for E7018 rods.
1.1.1 Carbon arc welding (CAW)

The Carbon arc welding (CAW) process is the oldest of all the arc welding processes
and is considered to be the beginning of arc welding. The Welding Society defines
carbon arc welding as "an arc welding process which produces coalescence of metals by
heating them with an arc between a carbon electrode and the work-piece. No shielding is
used. Pressure and filler metal may or may not be used." It has limited applications today,
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Modification of Carbone Arc Welding is Twin Carbon Electrode Arc Welding,

utilising arc struck between two carbon electrodes. Work piece is not a part of welding
electric circuit in Twin Carbon Electrode Arc Welding, therefore the welding torch may
be moved from one work piece to other without extinguishing the arc.
Another variation uses compressed air for cutting.
CAW schematic
1.1.2 Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)

One of the most common types of arc welding is Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW),
which is also known as Manual metal arc welding (MMA) or Stick welding. Electric
current is used to strike an arc between the base material and consumable electrode rod,
which is covered with a flux that protects the weld area from oxidation and contamination
by producing CO2 gas during the welding process. The electrode itself acts as filler
material, making separate filler unnecessary.
The process is versatile and can be performed with relatively inexpensive equipment,
making it well suited to shop jobs and field work. An operator can become reasonably
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proficient with a modest amount of training and can achieve mastery with experience.
Weld times are rather slow, since the consumable electrodes must be frequently replaced
and because slag, the residue from the flux, must be chipped away after welding.
Furthermore, the process is generally limited to welding ferrous materials, though
speciality electrodes have made possible the welding of cast iron, nickel, aluminium,
copper, and other metals.
Arc stability, depth of penetration, metal deposition rate and positional capability are
influenced by the chemical composition of the flux coating on the electrode. Electrodes
based on the coating can be divided into three main groups:
 Cellulosic
 Rutile
 Basic
Cellulosic electrodes contain a high proportion of cellulose in the coating giving high
welding speeds. deslagging can be difficult. These electrodes are easy to use in any
position. However due to high level of hydrogen generation the risk of cracking in the
heat affected zone (HAZ) is higher.
In Rutile (Titanium oxide) electrode Titanium oxide promotes easy arc ignition, smooth
arc operation and low spatter. These electrodes are general purpose electrodes with good
welding properties. They can be used with AC and DC power sources and in all
positions. The slag produce with this welding is easily removable.
Basic electrodes contain a high proportion of calcium carbonate (limestone) and calcium
fluoride (fluorspar) in the coating. This makes their slag coating more fluid than rutile
coatings - this is also fast-freezing which assists welding in the vertical and overhead
position. These electrodes are used for welding medium and heavy section fabrications
where higher weld quality, good mechanical properties and resistance to cracking are
required.
1.1.3 Submerged arc welding (SAW)

Submerged arc welding (SAW) is a high-productivity welding method in which the arc
is struck beneath a covering layer of flux. This improves arc quality, since contaminants
in the atmosphere are blocked by the flux. The slag that forms on the weld generally
comes off by itself, and combined with the use of a continuous wire feed, the weld
deposition rate is high. As the arc is completely covered by the flux layer, heat loss is
extremely low. This produces a high thermal efficiency as compared with manual metal
arc welding.
Working conditions are much improved over other arc welding processes, since the flux
hides the arc and almost no smoke is produced. The process is commonly used in
industry, especially for large products and in the manufacture of welded pressure vessels.
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Welding is mostly spatter-free and there is no need for fume extraction.
SAW welding
Granular fusible fluxes are used in SAW containing oxides of manganese, silicon,
titanium, aluminium, calcium, zirconium, magnesium and other compounds such as
calcium fluoride. The flux is specially formulated to be compatible with a given electrode
wire type so that the combination of flux and wire yields desired mechanical and
chemical properties. All fluxes react with the weld pool to produce the weld metal
chemical composition and mechanical properties.
The major advantages of SAW process are:
 High speed and deposition rate.

 Good quality weld.
 Smooth, uniform finished weld with no spatter.
 Little or no smoke.
 Minimal need for protective clothing as there is no arc flash.
 Easy automation.
 Excellent utilization of electrode wire.
1.1.4 Electro-slag welding (ESW)

In Electro-slag welding a non-conducting flux is kept in between two metals to be
joined. A metal electrode is dipped into the flux and the current is passed between
electrode and base metal. Welding is initiated by an arc between the electrode and the
work piece (or starting plate). Heat, generated by the arc, melts the fluxing powder and
forms molten slag. The slag, having low electric conductivity, is maintained in liquid
state due to heat produced by the electric current. The current melts the flux into a molten
slag bath, which in turn melts the electrodes and joint faces to form a bath of molten
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metal. On solidifying, molten metal bath forms the weld. As a rule electroslag welding is
used to join steel plates in thicknesses from 50mm to several meters. Its main field of
application is in the erection of blast furnace shells, turbines, welded-cast and welded
forged structures.
ESW
Following are the advantages of Electroslag Welding:
 High deposition rate.

 Very low flux consumption compared to SAW.
 Less distortion.
 Unlimited thickness of work piece.
The disadvantages are as follow.
 Coarse grain structure of the weld.

 Low toughness of the weld.
 Only vertical position is possible.
1.1.5 Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)

Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is an electric arc welding process that produces an arc
between a non-consumable electrode and the work to be welded. The weld is shielded
from the atmosphere by a shielding gas that forms an envelope around the weld area. This
method is characterized by a stable arc and high quality welds, but it requires significant
operator skill and can only be accomplished at relatively low speeds.
GTAW is versatile and can be used on ferrous and nonferrous metals and, depending on
the base metal, in all welding positions. The process can be used to weld thin or thick
materials with or without a filler metal.
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GTAW can be used on nearly all weldable metals, though it is most often applied to
stainless steels and light metals. It is often used when quality welds are extremely
important, such as in aircraft and naval applications.
The electrode material for GTAW is made from a tungsten alloy. Tungsten is a metal
having melting temperature of 34100 C.
The size of an electrode to be used is determined by the welding current required. Larger
electrodes permit higher currents. Smaller diameter electrodes may be used for welding
thinner materials or while welding out of position.
Argon and helium are the two most commonly used shielding gases used for GTAW.
Being inert gas, they protect the tungsten electrode and the molten weld pool from the
atmosphere.
Argon is suitable for welding similar and dissimilar metals and works well while welding
in the vertical and overhead welding positions.
Helium produces a narrow but deep heat-affected zone (HAZ), which is good for welding
on heavier metals. It is suitable for welding at high speeds and gives good coverage in
vertical and overhead welding positions. It helps to increase the penetration, and when
used as a back purge, it tends to flatten the pass of the weld bead. Helium is suitable for
use on thicker nonferrous metals.
Argon and helium mixtures are used when welders need the control of the argon and the
penetration of the helium. This mixture is not necessary when welding plain carbon
steels.
Typical mixtures vary, depending on the application. It is often used for automatic
welding applications.
Nitrogen can also be used as a shielding gas, but is rarely used because of its higher
current requirements. It is suitable for welding copper.
1.1.6 Plasma arc welding (PAW)
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Plasma arc welding (PAW) is defined as "an arc welding process which produces a
coalescence of metals by heating them with a constricted arc between an electrode and
the work piece (transferred arc) or the electrode and the constricting nozzle (non-
transferred arc).In this welding process, local heating is accomplished by plasma stream.
The plasma refers to a high temperature ionized gas. Shielding is obtained from the hot
ionized gas issuing from the orifice which may be supplemented by an auxiliary source of
shielding gas." Shielding gas may be an inert gas or a mixture of gases. Plasma welding
has been used for joining some of the thinner materials.
PAW
The primary difference between GTAW and PAW welding processes is that in PAW, the
electrode is recessed in a nozzle that serves to constrict the arc. Plasma gas is ionized in
the constricting nozzle and exits the nozzle at high speed.
Plasma arc welding is an advancement over the GTAW process. PAW can be used to join
all metals that are weldable with GTAW (i.e., most commercial metals and alloys).
However by PAW it is difficult to weld metals such as bronze, cast iron, lead and
magnesium.
The main disadvantages of PAW compared to GTAW are that the equipment is more
complex and costly, and the need for water cooling of the torch limits how small the
torch can be made.
While PAW is not as fast as LBW (laser beam welding) or EBW (Electron beam
welding), the capital equipment costs for PAW are typically a small fraction of the cost of
the high-energy density equipment (LBW and EBW).
One disadvantage of PAW is its greater heat input, which produces wider welds and heat-
affected zones than LBW and EBW. This may result in more distortion and loss of
mechanical properties.
Plasma arc widely used for cutting. When used for cutting, the plasma gas flow is
increased so that the deeply penetrating plasma jet cuts through the material and molten
metal is removed as cutting progress.
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Plasma arc cutting (PAC) differs from oxy-fuel cutting in that the plasma process
operates by using the arc to melt the metal whereas in the oxy-fuel process, the oxygen
oxidizes the metal and the heat from the exothermic reaction melts the metal. Unlike oxy-
fuel cutting, the PAC process can be applied to cutting metals which form refractory
oxides such as stainless steel (Chromium oxide), aluminum (aluminium oxide), and other
non-ferrous alloys.
1.1.7 Gas metal arc welding (GMAW)

Another welding process also related to gas tungsten arc welding is known as Gas metal
arc welding (GMAW). It was developed in the late 1940s for welding aluminum and has
become extremely popular. It is defined as "an arc welding process which produces
coalescence of metals by heating them with an arc between a continuous filler metal
(consumable) electrode and the work piece. Shielding is obtained entirely from an
externally supplied gas or gas mixture." The electrode wire for GMAW is continuously
fed into the arc and deposited as weld metal. This process has many variations depending
on the type of shielding gas, the type of metal transfer, and the type of metal welded.
GMAW
The gas metal arc welding (GMAW) process uses four basic modes to transfer metal
from the electrode to the work piece. Each mode of transfer depends on the welding
process, the welding power supply, and the consumable, and each has its own distinct
characteristics and applications.
Short-circuit Transfer:
In short-circuit transfer, the electrode touches the work and short circuits, causing the
metal to transfer as a result of the short. This happens at a rate of 20 to more than 200
times per second. The advantage of the short-circuit transfer is its low energy. This
method is normally used on thin material 6mm or less, and for root passes on pipe with
no backing. It can be used to weld in all positions.
Maintaining a constant contact tip-to-work distance in short-circuit transfer is important
to maintain a smooth transfer.
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Globular Transfer:
In Globular transfer weld metal transfers across the arc in large droplets, usually larger
than the diameter of the electrode being used. This mode of transfer generally is used on
carbon steel only and uses 100 percent CO2 shielding gas. The method typically is used
to weld in the flat and horizontal positions because the droplet size is large and would be
more difficult to control if used in the vertical and overhead positions compared to the
short-circuit arc transfer. This mode generates the most spatter.
Spray Transfer Mode:
In spray transfer tiny molten droplets are sprayed across the arc, similar to spray coming
out of a garden hose when the opening is restricted. Spray transfer usually is smaller than
the diameter of the wire and uses relatively high voltage and wire feed speeds or current.
Unlike short circuit transfer it is on at all times. This method produces very little spatter
and is most often used on thick metals in the flat and horizontal positions.
Because of the arc length used, it is also easily influenced by magnetic fields. If this is
not controlled, penetration profile, bead appearance, and spatter levels can be negatively
affected.
Pulse-Spray Transfer:
In the pulse-spray transfer mode, the power supply moves between a high spray transfer
current and a low background current. Ideally, in each cycle one droplet transfers from
the electrode to the weld pool. Because of the low background current, this mode of
transfer can be used to weld out of position on thick sections with higher energy than the
short-circuit transfer, thus producing a higher average current and improved side-wall
fusion. Additionally, it can be used to lower heat input and reduce distortion when high
travel speeds cannot be achieved.
Advantages of GMAW are as follow:
 Good Quality weld.

 High welding Speed.
 Versatility of welding. Many metals and alloys can be welded in all-position
welding.
 Higher welding efficiencies.
 Good aesthetics of weld bead.
 Ease of Operation.
 Affordable and cost-Effective.
 Reduced Fume Output.
 Fast/Easy Clean-Up after welding due to weld splatter and slag.
Following are the limitations of GMAW
 Process is highly sensitive to contaminants
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 Portability of the equipment with high pressure cylinders

 GMAW shielding gas is highly sensitive to wind
 Lack of fusion in short cicuit mode due to low current
 Welder eye protection required for the UV rays generated in GMAW process.
A variation of gas metal arc welding has become a distinct welding process and is known
as Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW). It is defined as "an arc welding process which
produces coalescence of metals by heating them with an arc between a continuous filler
metal (consumable) electrode and the work piece. Shielding is provided by a flux
contained within the tubular electrode." Additional shielding may or may not be obtained
from an externally supplied gas or gas mixture.
The final process within the arc welding group of processes is known as Stud arc
welding (SW). This process is defined as "an arc welding process which produces
coalescence of metals by heating them with an arc between a metal stud or similar part
and the work piece". When the surfaces to be joined are properly heated they are brought
together under pressure. Partial shielding may be obtained by the use of ceramic ferrule
surrounding the stud.
1.2 Brazing (B)

Brazing is a process in which the pieces to be joined are heated to a temperature at which
the filler material will melt and fill the gap between the pieces. The parent metals do not
melt in brazing. The filler material may be cast iron, brass-base, fusible tin-lead, and zinc
base alloys. The surface prepared for brazing is heated with a gas torch to the melting
point of the filler metal. With the help of flux, the molten filler metal will readily spread
over the joint faces due to capillary actions.
A variety of alloys are used as filler metals for brazing depending on the intended use or
application method. The filler metal for a particular application is chosen based on its
ability to wet the base metals, withstand the service conditions required, and melt at a
lower temperature than the base metals or at a very specific temperature. Following are
the filler metals used in Brazing
 Aluminum-silicon
 Nickel alloy
 Copper
 Copper-silver
 Copper-zinc (brass)
 Copper-tin (bronze)
 Gold-silver
 Silver
Braze welding relates to welding processes using brass or bronze filler metal, where the
filler metal is not distributed by capillary action.
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Braze welding
The process we now term braze welding was commonly known as bronze-welding.
Ever since the process was renamed braze welding, there has existed a degree of
confusion between the terms brazing and braze welding. The American Welding
Society definitions for brazing and braze welding both stipulate that the filler metal must
have a melting point above 4250C. However, the definitions state that in brazing the
filler metal is drawn into a tight-fitting joint by capillary action, whereas in braze
welding the filler metal is deposited in the joint by other than capillary attraction.
The basis for the braze welding process is that both brass and bronze will flow onto
properly prepared surfaces of higher-melting-point metals or alloys to form a bond or
molecular union which has excellent strength. The base metal is never melted.
Braze welding is basically an oxy-acetylene process. The intense heat of the oxy-
acetylene flame quickly raises the base metal to the proper temperature for fusion of filler
metal.
The filler metal used for most braze welding is a copper alloy containing roughly 60%
copper, 40% zinc, and small amounts of tin, iron, manganese, and silicon. Whenever a
copper-zinc filler metal is used for braze welding, a flux must be used. The flux also
serves other purposes, such as reducing the amount of fuming which occurs because of
the low boiling point of zinc. The flux can be pre-coated on the welding rod, or
transferred to the rod by dipping the heated end of the rod in a can of powdered flux.
1.3 Oxy Fuel Gas Welding (OFW)

Oxy fuel gas welding is "a group of welding processes which produces coalescence by
heating materials with an oxy fuel gas flame or flames with or without the application of
pressure and with or without the use of filler metal."
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OFW
There are four distinct processes within this group and in the case of two of them, oxy-
acetylene welding and oxy-hydrogen welding, the classification is based on the fuel gas
used. The heat of the flame is created by the chemical reaction or the burning of the
gases. In the third process, air acetylene welding, air is used instead of oxygen, and in
the fourth category, pressure gas welding; pressure is applied in addition to the heat
from the burning of the gases. This welding process normally utilizes acetylene as the
fuel gas. The oxygen thermal cutting processes have much in common with these welding
processes.
1.4 Resistance Welding (RW)

Resistance welding is "a group of welding processes which produces coalescence of
metals with the heat obtained from resistance of the work to electric current in a circuit of
which the work is a part, and by the application of pressure". In general, the difference
among the resistance welding processes has to do with the design of the weld and the
type of machine necessary to produce the weld. In almost all cases the processes are
applied automatically since the welding machines incorporate both electrical and
mechanical functions.
Resistant welding
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1.5 Other Welding Processes

This group of processes includes those, which are not best defined under the other
groupings. It consists of the following processes: electron beam welding, laser beam
welding, thermit welding, and other miscellaneous welding.
1.5.1 Electron beam welding (EBW)

Electron beam welding (EBW) is a fusion welding process in which a beam of high-
velocity electrons is applied to two materials to be joined. The work pieces melt as the
kinetic energy of the electrons is transformed into heat upon impact. EBW is often
performed under vacuum conditions to prevent dissipation of the electron beam.
EBW
EBW advantages:
 Single pass welding of thick joints.

 Low distortion.
 Low contamination in vacuum.
 Narrow weld zone.
 Narrow HAZ.
 No filler metal required.
 Dissimilar metal can be welded.
EBW limitations:
 High equipment cost.

 Work chamber size constraints.
 Time delay when welding in vacuum.
 X-rays are produced during welding.
 Rapid solidification rates can cause cracking in some materials.
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1.5.2 Laser beam welding (LBW)

Laser beam welding (LBW) is a welding technique used to join pieces of metal by the
use of a laser. The beam provides a concentrated heat source, allowing for narrow, deep
welds with high welding rates.
Laser beam welding
Like electron beam welding (EBW), laser beam welding has high power density resulting
in small heat-affected zones and high heating and cooling rates.
The depth of penetration is proportional to the amount of power supplied, but is also
dependent on the location of the focal point: penetration is maximized when the focal
point is slightly below the surface of the work piece
LBW is a versatile process, capable of welding all type of materials such as carbon steels,
stainless steel, aluminum, and titanium. Due to high cooling rates, cracking is a concern
when welding high-carbon steels. The weld quality is high, similar to that of electron
beam welding. The speed of welding is proportional to the amount of power supplied but
also depends on the type and thickness of the work pieces. The high power capability of
gas lasers make them especially suitable for high volume applications. LBW is
particularly dominant in the automotive industry.
Some of the advantages of LBW in comparison to EBW are as follows:
 Laser beam does not need vacuum to transmit.

 The process can be easily automated.
 There is no generation of x-rays.
 LBW results in better quality welds.
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1.5.3 Thermit welding (TW)

Thermit welding, is a process that employs molten metal to permanently join the
conductors or rail. The process employs an exothermic reaction of a thermite composition
to heat the metal, and requires no external source of heat or current. The thermite consists
of aluminum granulate and iron oxide (Fe2O3) which after igniting exhibits a strong
exothermal reaction. The extreme reaction heat of is able to create liquid steel up to 3000
°C without an auxiliary energy source.
In exothermic welding, aluminium dust reduces the oxide of another metal, most
commonly iron oxide, because aluminium is highly reactive.
Fe2O3 + 2Al= 2Fe + Al2O3
Other metal oxides can be used, such as chromium oxide, to generate the given metal in
its elemental form. Copper thermite, using copper oxide, is used for creating electric
joints:
3 Cu2O + 2Al = 6Cu + Al2O3
Thermite welding is widely used to weld railway rails. The weld quality of chemically
pure thermite is low due to the very low carbon and alloy content in the nearly pure
molten iron. Because the thermite reaction yields relatively pure iron, not the much
stronger steel, some small pellets or rods of high-carbon alloying metal are included in
the thermite mix; these alloying materials melt from the heat of the thermite reaction and
mix into the weld metal.
1.6 Soldering (S)
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Soldering is "a group of joining processes which produces coalescence of materials by

heating them to a suitable temperature and by using a filler metal having a liquidus not
exceeding 4500 C and below the solidus of the base materials. The filler metal is
distributed between the closely fitted surfaces of the joint by capillary attraction." There
are a number of different soldering processes and methods.
Soldering
The essential difference between brazing and soldering is the melting temperature of the
filler metal. Brazing filler metals melt above 4500 C while solder filler metals melt below
that temperature. In all cases filler metal melting temperatures are below the melting
temperatures of the work pieces being joined. The filler, called solder when solidifies, it
is bonded to the metal parts and joins them. The bond is not as strong as brazed joint or
welded one. Solder was once made mainly of lead, but environmental concerns are
pushing industry to lead-free alternatives.
Filler materials include combinations of tin-lead, tin-silver-lead, tin-zinc, silver-copper-

zinc and zinc-aluminum alloys. Just like brazing filler metals, solders are supplied as
wires, foil, sheets, pastes, preforms, or as bars and ingots.
Fluxes for soldering fall into three categories, the inorganic acid fluxes, organic fluxes,
and the rosin-based fluxes. These are available as liquids, powders, pastes, solid and in
flux-cored wires. Soldering fluxes may also be toxic and corrosive and require post-
cleaning operations.
1.7 Solid State Welding (SSW)

Solid state welding is "a group of welding processes which produces coalescence at
temperatures essentially below the melting point of the base materials being joined
without the addition of a brazing filler metal. Pressure may or may not be used."
The oldest of all welding processes forge welding belongs to this group. Others include
cold welding, diffusion welding, explosion welding, friction welding, hot pressure
welding, and ultrasonic welding. These processes are all different and utilize different
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forms of energy for making welds. We will discuss here about explosion welding only as
it is widely used in the industry for corrosion resistant cladding.
1.7.1 Explosion welding

Explosion welding (EXW) is a solid state (solid-phase) process where welding is
accomplished by accelerating one of the components at extremely high velocity by the
use of chemical explosives. This process is most commonly utilised to clad carbon
steel/Low alloy steel plate with a thin layer of corrosion resistant material (stainless steel,
nickel alloy, titanium, zirconium etc).
When an explosive is detonated on the surface of a metal (as shown in the above figure) a
high pressure pulse is generated. This pulse propels the metal at a very high rate of speed.
When this piece of metal collides at an angle with another piece of metal, welding may
occur. For welding to occur, a jetting action is required at the collision interface. This jet
is the product of the surfaces of the two pieces of metals colliding. This cleans the metals
and allows to pure metallic surfaces to join under extremely high pressure. The metals are
atomically bonded. As a result any metal may be welded/bonded to any metal (copper to
steel, titanium to stainless etc.).
Explosion welding can produce a bond between two metals that cannot necessarily be
welded by conventional welding methods. This process does not melt either metal,
instead plasticising the surfaces of both metals, causing them to come into intimate
contact sufficient to create a bond.
Following are the advantages of Explosion welding:
 Can bond many dissimilar and unweldable metals.

 Simplicity of the process.
 Extremely large surfaces can be bonded.
 No change in parent properties.
 Wide range of thicknesses can be explosively clad together.
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Following are the limitations:
 The metals to be welded must have high enough ductility to withstand impact.
 Huge noise and blast require vacuum chambers, buried in sand/water, operator
protection etc.
 The use of explosives in industrial areas are restricted in most of the places.
 The geometries welded must be simple in the shape of flat, cylindrical, conical
etc.
2.0 Types of Welded Joints
The weld joint is where two or more metal parts are joined by welding. The five basic
types of weld joints are the butt, corner, tee, lap, and edge.
Butt Joint: it is used to join two members aligned in the same plane. This joint is
frequently used in plate, sheet metal, and pipe work.
Corner and Tee Joints: these joints are used to join two members located at right angles
to each other. In cross section, the corner joint forms an L-shape, and the tee joint has the
shape of the letter T.
Lap Joint: this joint is made by lapping one piece of metal over another. This is one of
the strongest types of joints available; however, for maximum joint efficiency, the
overlap should be at least three times the thickness of the thinnest member of the joint.
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Edge Joint: it is used to join the edges of two or more members lying in the same plane.
In most cases, one of the members is flanged, as seen in the figure. This type is frequently
used in sheet metal work for joining metals 1/4 inch or less in thickness that are not
subjected to heavy loads.
Some Terminology of welded joints:

The root of a joint is that portion of the joint where the metals are closest to each other.
A groove is an opening or space provided between the edges of the metal parts to be
welded.
The bevel angle is the angle formed between the prepared edge of a member and a plane
perpendicular to the surface of the member.
The groove angle is the total angle of the groove between the parts to be joined.
The groove radius is the radius used to form the shape of a J- or U-groove weld joint.
The root opening refers to the separation between the parts to be joined at the root of the
joint. It is sometimes called the “root gap”.
Weld reinforcement is a term used to describe weld metal in excess of the metal
necessary to fill a joint.
Types of welds:
Plug welds:
These welds made through holes or slots in one member of a lap joint. These welds are
used to join that member to the surface of another member that has been exposed through
the hole.
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Fillet weld:
It is triangular in shape and this weld is used to join two surfaces that are at
approximately right angles to each other in a lap, tee, or comer joint.
Butt or groove weld:
These are welds made in the groove between two members to be joined.
Groove geometry:
There are different type of bevel groove geometry such as square groove, V groove, U
groove, J groove and the double U, V, J groove geometries. Each type of the groove
geometry offers its own advantages and disadvantages and accordingly each type of the
groove geometry affects the performance of the weld joints
Square butt joint:
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The square-groove is a butt welding joint with the two pieces being flat and parallel to
each other. This joint is simple to prepare, economical to use, and provides satisfactory
strength, but is limited by joint thickness.
For thicker joints, the edge of each member of the joint must be prepared to a particular
geometry to provide accessibility for welding and to ensure the desired weld soundness
and strength. The opening or gap at the root of the joint and the included angle of the
groove should be selected to require the least weld metal necessary to give needed access
and meet strength requirements.
V-joints:
In single butt welds V joints, both sides of the weld joint are beveled. In thick metals, and
when welding can be performed from both sides of the work piece, a double-V joint is
used. When welding thicker metals, a double-V joint requires less filler material because
there are two narrower V-joints compared to a wider single-V joint. Also the double-V
joint helps compensate for warping forces and hence results in less distortion. With a
single-V joint, stress tends to warp the piece in one direction when the V-joint is filled
with molten metal, but with a double-V-joint, there are welds on both sides of the
material, having opposing stresses, straightening the material.
J-joints:
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Single-J butt welds are when one piece of the weld is in the shape of a J that easily
accepts filler material and the other piece is square. A J-groove is formed either with
special cutting machinery or by grinding the joint edge into the form of a J. Although a J-
groove is more difficult and costly to prepare than a V-groove, a single J-groove on metal
between a half an inch and three quarters of an inch thick provides a stronger weld that
requires less filler material. Double-J butt welds have one piece that has a J shape from
both directions and the other piece is square.
U-joints:
Single-U butt welds are welds that have both edges of the weld surface shaped like a J,
but once they come together, they form a U. Double-U joints have a U formation on both
the top and bottom of the prepared joint. U-joints are the most expensive edge to prepare
and weld. They are usually used on thick base metals where a V-groove would be at such
an extreme angle, that it would cost too much to fill.
3.0 Welding Metallurgy
When electric arc welding processes are used to join metals, a large amount of energy is
put into the base metal in very short time. Fraction of seconds to a few minutes, in most
instances. This rapid input of heat has dramatic effects on the metallurgical structure in
the weld zone, which is heated close to the melting temperature. There are three major
consequences; a very rapid heating of the base metal up to melting temperature, a
superheating of molten weld metal derived from melted base metal and any added filler
metal and fairly rapid cooling rate. The cooling rates observed in welds are faster than
those in most heat treatment processes because the passage of the welding thermal energy
is directly into the relatively cold base metal, which acts as a quench medium.
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In the presence of the arc the molten weld metal is superheated to few hundred degrees
Celsius above the metal fusion temperature. The high surface temperature at the weld
pool promotes rapid interaction between the molten metal and any reactive gases or slags
which are present. These reactions can cause significant change in weld metal chemistry
and can cause lot of damage like porosity to cracking in the weld metal. All the
atmospheric gases like oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen can cause
welding problems if dissolved in relatively small quantities. Absorbed gases can form
compounds (e.g brittle iron nitride) or go into solid solution (e.g, oxygen in titanium,
which causes embrittlement of the metal) or form porosity (e.g, hydrogen in aluminium
and magnesium).
The effect of rapid temperature rise during the initial heating cycle cannot even out the
segregation of alloying elements or impurities in the base metal by diffusion, because the
time available is too short. This can lead to local region in the base metal right next to the
fusion line where localized melting can occur. This is most likely where previous
segregation in the base metal exists, for instance in the grain boundaries. These regions
may contain higher than average concentrations of alloying elements or impurities, which
cause a lowering of melting temperature. This region is then called partially melted zone.
This localized melted area may solidify again as the temperature falls after the welding or
sometimes it may open up under thermal stress to form a small crack. This type of cracks
are called liquation crack.
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Weld and HAZ zone temp and structure shown
The peak temperature reached in welding is far in excess of temperatures in conventional

heat treating process. There will be two major results
 Grain sizes in the heat affected zone next to the fusion line will be largest.
This will increase hardenability in heat treatable steel (transformable steel)
and may concentrate impurities which are segregated near grain boundaries.
This phenomenon can lead to a form of hot cracking.
 All the effect of heat treatment (e.g; tempering, age-hardening etc) and work
hardening will be removed in part of HAZ. Higher the heat input, larger will
be the affected area.
Due to quenching effect of relatively cold parent metal, which conducts heat away from
the weld zone there will be rapid cooling cycles after welding is complete.
This cooling rate affects important weld zone properties such as strength, toughness and
cracking susceptibility. As the cooling rate increases, several important welding effects
occur.
If weld zone properties are not desirable, it is possible in some cases to improve them by
altering the cooling rate after welding. Two main methods are used. Higher heat input in
a given situation slows down the cooling rate. Preheating base metal before welding also
slows down the cooling rate. Higher the preheating slower will be the cooling rate.
Further control of cooling rate can be done by maintaining certain inter-pass temperature
which is effectively a preheat value for each succeeding pass.
3.1 Weld metal solidification

The mixture of filler metal and base metal found in the weld joint is called the weld
metal. And while the weld metal’s chemical composition may be similar to that of the
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base metal (depending on the chemical composition of the filler metal), the
microstructures of each are significantly different.
Solidification of weld metal takes place differently with respect to castings. The molten
weld pool is contained within a crucible of solid metal of similar composition. Since the
melting temperature of the base metal is reached, the fusion line and adjacent HAZ go
through a very high temperature for a short time. As a result rapid grain growth takes
place in the HAZ. These large grains act as nuclei and the weld metal solidifies against
them and assumes the form of dendrites and the result is called epitaxial growth. There is
a very thin region of melted base in the weld metal right next to the fusion line which
although 100% molten, is not stirred into the bulk of molten pool during welding, due to
viscous effects during mixing. This region is called the Melted unmixed zone (or MUZ)
and is usually very narrow, in the range of 0.1mm wide.
Initial growth during solidification in this region is planar, and cellular growth occurs as
the growth rate increases. Columnar growth and dendrites form as faster growth
continues in the bulk of the weld metal. As the growth of the dendrites moves into the
molten weld pool, segregation of some of the alloying elements and impurities occur as
the solidifying weld metal rejects some of the elements in the liquid weld pool due to
lower solubility in the solid state. As a result the remaining liquid at the end of the
solidification can contain significantly higher level of some elements. This can lead to
formation of cracks and fissures in the weld metal. For example, the concentration of
Sulphur, Phosphorus, Carbon & Oxygen at the grain boundaries in many ferrous and
nickel alloys, which alone, or together with themselves and other elements, can form
complex eutectics of low melting temperatures. The filler metals used for situations prone
to hot cracking often contain elements which can mitigate the cracking problem by
combining with detrimental element to render it harmless. Manganese is often added to
ferrous alloys to combine with Sulphur.
The three fundamental strengthening mechanisms which are used in metals and alloys
like cold working, precipitation (age) hardening and transformation (martensitic)
hardening can be affected significantly by the welding thermal cycle in the HAZ.
3.2 Heat affected zone

Right next to the weld metal is the HAZ. It is usually considered the area of the base
metal that wasn’t melted but was heated to the point that its microstructure or mechanical
properties were altered by the welding heat.
For example, a plain carbon steel is influenced when heat of welding gets higher than
7300C on the other hand, a heat-treated steel quenched to martensite and then tempered at
3150C is affected as soon as its temperature is raised above 3150C; at the very least, its
mechanical properties would be influenced. Similarly, the HAZ of a heat-treated
aluminum alloy age-hardened at 1200C includes any area heated above 1200C.
So it can be said that HAZ depends as much on the material and its accompanying
treatments as it does on temperatures and heat input. In addition to that, each weld pass
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will have its own HAZ, although the weld metal from a previous pass—even though it
most likely has a raised temperature—is not considered a part of the HAZ. The width of
the HAZ is directly related to welding heat input,.
Depending on the alloy systems, several zones are formed within the HAZ due the the
combination of heating rate, peak temperature and cooling rate. The subcritical HAZ
occurs when the peak temperature is below a recrystallization temperature in work
hardened metal or the solvus temperature of precipitation hardenable alloy or the
allotropic phase change temperature for a transformation hardening alloy as the case may
be. Above the critical temperature the grain size increases with the increase in
temperature. In transformation hardening alloys two distinct region exist in the high
temperature heat affected zone.
 Fine grain HAZ- This region exists when an allotropic phase change decreases
the average grain size in comparison to the grain size in the subcritical
temperature.
 Coarse grain HAZ-This region occurs at high temperatures when all phase
changes are completed.
4.0 Welding defects
A defect is a flaw which is likely to cause structural failure under anticipated operating
conditions.
Flaws and defect in a weld region may be two or three dimensional. Typical flaws caused
by welding process and procedure problems are following.
4.1 Lack of penetration

Incomplete penetration happens when the filler metal and base metal aren’t joined
properly, and the result is a gap or a crack of some sort.
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Welds that suffer from lack of penetration are weak and may fail if significant load is
applied on them.
Following are the common causes of lack of penetration welding defect.
 Narrow weld groove where filler metal does not reach the bottom of the joint.
 Too much gap between the pieces being welded. As a result the initial pass does
not melt properly.
 Too fast welding speed resulting in inadequate metal deposit.
 Low amperage resulting in inadequate melting.
 Too large electrode.
4.2 Lack of fusion

Incomplete fusion occurs when individual weld beads don’t fuse together, or when the
weld beads don’t fuse properly to the base metal being welded or passes if they are
deposited over a previous one before it has been de-slagged.
The most common type of lack of fusion is called overlap and usually occurs at the toe
(on the very top or very bottom of the side) of a weld.
Following are the causes of lack of fusion
 Too small electrode for the thickness of the metal being welded.
Use of wrong electrode for the material being welded.
 Too fast welding speed.
 Too short arc length.
 Too low welding current.
 Contaminants or impurities on the surface of the parent metal prevent the molten
metal from the filler rod or elsewhere on the parent metal from fusing.
Due to inadequate melting of base metal and may occur between consecutive beads,
layers, or passes if they are deposited over a previous one before it has been deslagged.
4.3 Slag or non-metallic inclusions
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It refers to oxides, sulphides, phosphorus compound, and nitrides entrapped in the weld
metal or between the weld and parent metal and failed to float out to the slag. This
phenomenon is common when welding is done at a high travel speed.
Slag is formed by reaction with the fluxes and is generally lighter as a result it will
float on the top of the weld pool. And would chipped off after solidification.
However, the stirring action of the high-intensity arc would force the slag to go
into weld pool and if there is not enough time for it to float, it may get solidified
inside the weld pool and end up as slag inclusion.
Following are the causes of slag inclusion
 Use of overhead welding technique.

 Incorrect selection of flux powder.
 Improper cleaning of the weld beads in multi-pass welding.
 Undercut on the previous pass.
 Incorrect manipulation of the electrode.
Slag inclusion in a weld weakens the metal by providing the discontinuities.
4.4 Spatter
During welding operation due to the force of arc, some of the molten metal particles jump
from weld pool falling into other areas of the plate which is called as spatter.
Following are the causes for the spatter
 Use of low welding speeds during joining of large thickness plates.

 Excessive arc length.
 Use of sample electrodes.
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Spatter can be kept to a minimum by spraying with an anti-spatter compound or by

scraping the spatter off the parent metal surface.
4.5 Metallic inclusions

It is mostly Tungsten inclusions which may occur in TIG welding process. This is due to
either too small electrode or amperage too high or when electrode dipped into weld pool
or touched with the filler rod. The only repair procedure is to grind out and reweld.
4.6 Porosity
Porosity is gas pores found in the solidified weld bead. Porosities are formed due to
reactions with shielding gases or slags and from rapid decrease in gas solubility with
decreasing temperature.
The most common causes of porosity are atmosphere contamination, excessively
oxidized work piece surfaces, inadequate deoxidizing alloys in the wire and the presence
of foreign matter.
Atmospheric contamination can be caused by: 1) Inadequate shielding gas flow.
2) Excessive shielding gas flow. 3) Severely clogged gas nozzle or damaged gas
supply system 4) an excessive wind in the welding area. This can blow away the gas
shield.
The atmospheric gases that are primarily responsible for porosity in steel are nitrogen and
excessive oxygen. Oxygen in the atmosphere can cause severe problems with aluminum
because of its rapid oxide formation.
In addition, excessive moisture in the atmosphere can cause porosity in steel and
particularly aluminum.
The oxygen in the steel can cause CO porosity if the proper deoxidizing elements are not
present. molten puddle releases gases like hydrogen and carbon dioxide as the puddle
cools; if the little pockets of gas don’t reach the surface before the metal solidifies, they
become incorporated in the weld,
Foreign matter can also be a source of porosity. An example is excessive lubricant on the
welding wire. These hydrocarbons are sources of hydrogen which is particularly harmful
for aluminum.
Following are a few simple steps which can be adopted to reduce porosity in the
welds.
 Make sure all the materials are clean before welding.
 Use proper manipulation of the electrode.
 Try using low-hydrogen electrodes.
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4.7 Undercut
Undercutting is a defect that appears as a groove in the parent metal directly along the
edges of the weld .It occurs due to adoption of poor welding technique. This type of
defect is most commonly caused by improper welding parameters; particularly the travel
speed and arc voltage. Undercutting is aggravated by an excessive welding current. This
defect is highly undesirable because it produces stress raisers that can create problem
under impact and fatigue load.
Decreasing the arc travel speed can gradually reduce the size of the undercut and
eventually eliminate it. Increasing the arc voltage or using a leading torch angle are also
corrective actions. In both cases, the weld bead will become flatter and wetting will
improve resulting in absence of undercutting. The arc length should be kept short, not
only to avoid undercutting but to increase penetration and weld soundness. Excessive
welding currents can also cause undercutting
4.8 Excess penetration
The excess penetration occurs due to disruption of weld bead beyond the root of the weld.
It is caused due to improper welding techniques, poor joint preparation, improper joint
alignment and due to high heat input.
This type of defects are generally inaccessible for repair and hence elimination is largely
in preventing it to occur.
4.9 Excess reinforcement
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It impairs the behavior of weldment under dynamic loads and is therefore unacceptable.
In automatic welding it may happen due to wrong adjustment. In manual welding it
happens due to welder’s low skills.
Following are the reasons of excess reinforcement
 Use of low welding speed with direct current reverse polarity.

 Excessive current.
 Use of large size electrodes for joining of small thickness plates.
4.10 Crater
At the end of welding, a shallow spherical depression is known as the crater. This
is due to improper welding technique specially Incorrect torch angle or use of large
angle at the end of the weld bead.
Crater
This may be remedied by proper manipulation of the electrode. When finishing a

weld the operator should not draw away the arc quickly but should maintain the arc
until the crater is filled up.
On re-striking the arc, to continue the weld bead, the arc should strike
approximately 15mm in front of the previous bead and travel backwards and then
forward in the direction of welding.
.4.11 Cracks
A crack may be defined as a local discontinuity produced by a fracture which can arise
from the stresses generated on cooling or acting on the structure. It is the most serious
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type of weld defect and should not be allowed in the weld. Cracks not only reduce the
strength of the weld through the reduction in the cross section thickness but also can
readily propagate through stress concentration at the tip. It can occur due to solidification
and low temperature ductility problems.
Solidification of the weld and the cooling of the weld zone to ambient temperature cause
shrinking for nearly all metals. Since the shrinkage is localized. Residual stresses are
developed in the completed structure. These residual stresses are in tensile in both the
directions, transverse in axial directions. These level of tensile stress can lead to flaw
development, such as cracking and often need to be countered by stress relieving post
weld heat treatment.
The combination of slag-metal and gas reactions, segregation effects and residual stress
can lead to formation of the flaws in the HAZ and weld metal.
4.11.1 Hot cracking.

Hot cracking occurs at elevated temperatures and is often referred to as
solidification cracking. Cracks which occur in the weld metal as it solidifies are called
solidification cracks. These cracks may be caused by elements deliberately added or
impurities present in the weld metal. Cracks may form in the weld metal and the HAZ at
temperatures just below the bulk solidus line of each region, primarily due to segregation
of alloy or impurity elements which depress the solidus (melting point) locally. The
resulting liquid films on the dendrite or grain boundaries cause cracks to form in a region
otherwise solid metal. In the weld metal these types of cracks are generally called hot
tears or fissures and in the HAZ liquation cracks. At lower temperatures local
embrittlement can cause ductility dip cracks and certain heating after welding can lead to
reheat cracks in the HAZ. Temper embrittlement can also lead to cracking in some
weldment under certain conditions.
The major cause of solidification cracking is that the weld bead in the final stage of
solidification has insufficient strength to withstand the contraction stresses generated as
the weld pool solidifies. Factors which increase the risk include:
 insufficient weld bead size or shape

 welding under high restraint
 Material properties such as a high impurity content or a relatively large amount of
shrinkage on solidification.
Joint design can have a significant influence on the level of residual stresses. Large gaps
between component parts will increase the strain on the solidifying weld metal, especially
if the depth of penetration is small. Therefore, weld beads with a small depth-to-width
ratio, will be more susceptible to solidification cracking,
In steels cracking is associated with impurities, mainly sulphur and phosphorus, and is
promoted by carbon whereas manganese and silicon can help to reduce the risk. To
minimise the risk of cracking, fillers with low carbon and impurity levels and a relatively
high manganese content are generally used.
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In SMAW and MIG where low dilution is involved, cracking is less likely as the weld
metal chemistry is dominated by the electrode composition which is generally cleaner
than the metal being welded.
Plate composition assumes greater importance in high dilution conditions such as when
welding the root in butt welds, using an autogenously welding technique like TIG, or a
high dilution process such as submerged arc welding(SAW).
In fully austenitic stainless steel weld is more prone to cracking compared to a stainless
steel containing between 5-10% of ferrite. Ferrite is beneficial in its capacity to contain
harmful impurities within the grains which would otherwise form low melting point
segregates and consequently inter-dendritic cracks. Therefore the choice of filler material
is important to suppress cracking so a type 308 filler which helps in producing some
ferrite is used to weld type 304 stainless steel.
Aluminium which has high thermal expansion (approximately twice that of steel) and
substantial contraction on solidification means that aluminium alloys are more prone to
cracking. The risk can be reduced by using a crack resistant filler such as 4xxx (Al-Si
alloys) and 5xxx (Al-Mg alloys) series alloys. But the disadvantage is that the resulting
weld metal is likely to have lower strength than the parent metal.
Liquation cracking happens due to micro segregation at grain boundaries, which remains
in liquid stage even below the solidus line of the bulk alloy in the HAZ. The tensile stress
created due to shrinkage during solidification pull the grain boundaries apart. This type of
cracking typically occurs near the weld metal HAZ fusion line.
Reheat cracking occurs in Cr-Mo, Cr-Mo-V and some austenitic stainless steels at high
temperature service. Or sometimes during stress relieving heat treatment. All the steels
which are susceptible to reheat cracking contain secondary hardening elements (V, Ti,
Nb) are also susceptible to temper embrittlement (P, Sn, As, Sb segregation to prior
austenitic grain boundaries promoted by Mn, Cr and Ni). There are many alloy carbides
which can form during tempering or high temperature service. These carbides can cause
secondary hardening, which is partly responsible for reheat cracking. The carbides are
formed due to major alloying elements Cr and Mo. The minor alloying elements (V, Ti
and Nb) form smaller intra-granular carbides or carbo-nitrides which produce even more
significant increase in grain interior strength, thus promoting reheat cracking. In
austenitic stainless steels, types 321 (Ti) and 347 (Nb) are prone to reheat cracks.
During heat treatment or high temperature service after welding, the large grain
boundaries near the weld fusion line may have higher concentration of P, Sn etc. This
weakens the grain boundary cohesion to some extent. However dissolved C & N may
recombine with V, Ti or Nb to form small precipitates within the grains. These
precipitates strengthen the grain interiors with respect to the grain boundaries. The
combination of strong grain interiors with weakened grain boundaries causes inter-
granular failures when thermal strains are induced in the structure by thermal gradients
due to heat treatment or service.
Post weld heat treatment cracking or reheat cracking also occurs in heat treatable (age
hardenable) Nickle alloys. Heat treatable Nickel base alloys are often post weld heat
treated for two important reasons; to relieve stress and to develop maximum strength. To
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develop maximum strength, the weldment is solutionised and then aged. During
solutionising the residual stress in the weldment are also relieved. However aging may
occur during solutionisation as aging temperature is less than solutionisation temperature.
Since the aging action occurs before the residual stresses are relieved, it is harmful and
often results in cracking during PWHT.
Following techniques are adopted to minimise solidification cracks.
 Use of proper filler/electrode.
 Less gap in weld joint fit-up.
 Proper welding sequence to avoid thermal induced stress.
 Proper cleaning of materials before welding in initiated.
 Avoid producing too large a depth to width ratio.
 At the weld run stop area, fill up the crater to avoid concave shape.
 Avoid high welding speeds at high current levels which increase the amount of
segregation and the stress level across the weld bead.
4.11.2 Cold cracking

Cold cracking occurs near, at or below ambient temperature.
Cold cracking occurs when the following four factors are present simultaneously:
 Hydrogen in the weld metal.

 High stresses (total from applied, residual and transformation stresses).
 Susceptible microstructure (such as martensite, bainite, ferrite/carbide).
 And relatively low temperatures (near ambient temperature).
Hydrogen cracking tends to occur at low (ambient) temperatures. For this reason it is
often referred to as cold cracking. It is also referred to as delayed cracking owing to the
incubation time required for crack development in some cases.
The use of proper preheating and interpass temperature can help reduce hydrogen
cracking. In general, the greater the carbon equivalent and thickness of the work-piece,
the higher the preheat and interpass temperatures required.
Post weld heat treatment can be used to stress relieve the weld before it cools to room
temperature. In case, stress relieve heat treatment cannot be carried out immediately upon
completion of welding, the completed weldment can be held at a proper temperature to
allow austenite to transform into a less susceptible microstructure than martensitic. If
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PWHT is not possible, holding after welding at 250-3000 C will diffuse Hydrogen out
of the weld zone.
Low alloy steels are more susceptible due to their hardenability. Susceptibility increases
with decrease in welding energy (tack welds, intermittent welds, first passes of multipass
welds etc. Joints welded with rutile or cellulosic are very sensitive to this phenomenon.
Basic electrodes diminish the risk.
Cold cracking implies the existence of stress; unrestrained are less susceptible to cold
cracking than restrained welds. Transverse cracks in the HAZ seem to be specific to
highly hardenable steels. Transverse cracks in the weld imply the presence of high
stresses.
By using proper welding processes and materials, risk of hydrogen cracking can be
minimized.
Precaution to be taken to avoid cold cracking during the welding of steel can be summed
up as following.
 Using low hydrogen electrodes.

 Using lower strength filler metals.
 Preheating, maintaining interpass temperature and post heating.
 Using austenitic stainless steel filler metals (since the solubility of hydrogen
in austenite is very high).
4.12 Lamellar tearing

Lamellar tearing or cracking is most frequently observed in a metal in the through
thickness direction after welding (In pressure vessels joints like nozzle to shell). It is the
combination of high localized stresses due to weld contraction and low ductility of the
material in the through thickness direction due to presence of elongated stringers of
non-metallic inclusions parallel to its rolling direction. Cracking is triggered by the de-
cohesion of such non-metallic inclusions (usually silicates and sulphides) near the weld,
in or just outside the HAZ.
Electrodes of lower strength levels provide the weld metal the ability to accommodate for
contraction strains and therefore improve the resistance to lamellar tearing.
A practical way of avoiding lamellar tearing is to employ joint designs that allow the
contraction stresses to act in the rolling direction, rather than the transverse direction.
Typical lamellar tearing location shown
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Improved joint design to avoid lamellar tearing shown
4.1.4 Temper embrittlement

Temper embrrittlement is caused by segregation of Phosphorus, and to a lesser extent by
Tin(Sn), Arsenic(As) and Antimony(Sb) to prior austenitic grain boundaries during heat
treatment or high temperature service at <5500 C. Chromium(Cr) and Nickel(Ni) tend to
help segregation, while Molybdenum(Mo) tends to minimize it.
The suggested method to minimize it is to keep Manganese(Mn) and Silicon(Si) as low as
possible. The preferred method in modern steels is to limit P content to less than 0.01%.
It is not metallurgically possible to reduce Sn, As and Sb to levels lower than the level
they appear in steels now.
5.0 Chemical reactions in welding

with gas
Effects of Nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen
These gases can dissolve in the weld metal during welding. These elements usually come
from air, the consumables like shielding gas or flux or from base metals such as moist or
dirt on its surface. Nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen can affect soundness of the resultant
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weld significantly. Some examples of the effect of these gases are given in the table
below.
Material Nitrogen Oxygen Hydrogen

Steels Increases strength but Reduces toughness Induces hydrogen
reduces toughness but improves it if cracking
acicular ferrite is
promoted.
Austenitic Reduces ferrite and ----- -----
stainless promote solidification
steel/Duplex cracking
SS
Aluminum --- Forms oxide films Forms gas porosity
that can be trapped that can reduce both
as inclusions strength and
ductility
Titanium Increases strength but Increases strength ----
reduces toughness but reduces ductility
Protection Techniques in Common welding processes
Protection technique Welding process

Gas GTAW, GMAW, Plasma etc
Slag Electroslag, SAW etc
Slag and gas SMAW, FCAW etc
Vacuum Electron beam welding
5.1 Nitrogen
For metals that neither dissolves nor reacts with nitrogen like Cu and Ni, nitrogen can be
used as a shielding gas for these metals. But for metals that either dissolves or form
nitrides (or both) like Iron, Titanium, Manganese and Chromium, the protection of weld
metal from nitrogen to be considered.
The presence of nitrogen in the welding zone is usually a result of improper protection
against air. However nitrogen is sometimes added purposely to the inert shielding gas.
Nitrogen is an austenite stabilizer for austenitic and duplex stainless steel. Increasing the
weld metal nitrogen content can decrease ferrite content in the weld and increases
the risk of solidification cracking.
The presence of nitrogen significantly affects the mechanical properties of steel. A needle
like structure of Fe4N can form in ferrite matrix which is brittle and can be starting point
for crack initiation. Nitrogen also decreases ductility of Titanium welds.
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To protect weld from nitrogen, strong nitride former elements are added through filler
metals (like Ti, Al, Si, Zr etc.). The nitrides formed enter the slag and thus reduces
nitrogen content in the weld.
5.2 Oxygen
Oxygen in the weld metal can come from air or from decomposition of oxides, such as
SiO2 , MnO and FeO in the flux or from slag metal reactions in the weld pool.
Oxygen can oxidise Carbon and other alloying elements in the liquid metal depressing
hardenability and producing inclusions. If oxidation results in excessive inclusion
formations in the weld metal or significant loss of alloying elements to the slag, the
mechanical properties of the weld metal can deteriorate. Strength, toughness, ductility all
can decrease with increasing oxygen contamination. In some cases however, fine
inclusion particles act as a nucleation site for acicular ferrite to form increasing weld
metal toughness.
5.3 Hydrogen
During welding of high strength steels, presence of hydrogen can cause hydrogen
cracking. Hydrogen in weld can come from different sources: the combustion product in
oxy-fuel welding; decomposition product in Cellulosic type covering in SMAW welding;
moisture or grease on the surface of work piece or electrode; or moisture in the flux,
electrode covering or shielding gas.
The weld hydrogen content can be reduced in several ways. First avoid hydrogen
containing shielding gases, cellulose type electrode coverings and hydrogen containing
inert gases. Secondly dry the electrode covering or flux to remove moisture and clean the
filler wire and work piece to remove grease. Third use post weld heating to help
hydrogen to diffuse out of weld.
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6.0 Welding distortion
Forces acting on the materials may be external and internal. External forces arise from
permanent loads, such as the self-weight of the structure, the gas pressure in the cylinder,
or the pre-stress applied to the reinforcing bars used in the concrete.
Internal reactive forces may arise due to change in the temperature, a change in the
structure of the material due to an external load, or in the course of welding, or due to
both.
The changes in the shape or dimensions of a body caused by external or internal forces
are cumulatively referred to as deformation.
6.1 Concept of Distortion

Welding involves highly localized heating of the metal being joined together. The
temperature distribution in the weldment is therefore non uniform. Normally, the weld
metal and the heat affected zone (HAZ) are at temperatures substantially above that of the
unaffected base metal. Upon cooling, the weld pool solidifies and shrinks, exerting
stresses on the surrounding weld metal and HAZ.
If the stresses produced from thermal expansion and contraction exceed the yield strength
of the parent metal, localized plastic deformation of the metal occurs. Plastic deformation
results in lasting change in the component dimensions and distorts the structure. This
causes distortion of weldments.
To gain insight into how base metal expansion and base metal plus weld metal shrinkage
cause distortion, it is helpful to look at what actually happens to base metal and weld
metal.
During welding, the base metal near the arc is heated to the melting point. A few
centimetres away, the temperature of the base metal is substantially lower.
This sharp temperature differential causes non uniform expansion followed by base metal
movement, or metal displacement if the parts being joined are restrained. Also, the
expansion of the hotter base metal (which is nearer the welding arc) is subject to restraint,
due to the resistance of comparatively colder metal away from the welding arc. The metal
nearer the arc expands more than that away from the arc.
As the arc passes down the joint, thus removing the source of heat, the base metal begins
to cool and shrink. If the surrounding metal restrains the adjacent base metal from
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contracting normally, internal stresses build up. These combine with the stresses
developed in the weld metal and increase the tendency to distort.
The volume of this adjacent base metal which contributes to distortion can be controlled
by welding procedures. Achieving higher welding speeds through the use of powdered
iron type manual electrodes and semiautomatic or fully automatic equipment using
submerged arc or self-shielded welding reduces the amount of adjacent material that is
affected by the heat of the arc and progressively decreases distortion.
During most of the welding, filler metal is added from the electrode. The molten filler
metal and melted base metal combine to form the weld metal. Just as the weld metal
solidifies, it is in its maximum expanded state actually occupying the greatest volume it
can occupy as a solid.
Upon cooling, it attempts to contract to the volume it would normally occupy at the lower
temperature, but is restrained from doing so by the adjacent base metal. At the time the
weld reaches room temperature assuming complete restraint of the base metal so that it
cannot move the weld tends to have locked in tensile stresses approximately equal to the
yield strength. If one or more of the restraints are removed such as clamps holding the
work piece the locked in stresses find partial relief by causing the base metal to move
thus deforming or distorting the weldment.
To Conclude
 Unequal expansion and contraction due to non-uniform (welding) heating,

restraint from within the base metal, restraint due to other structural members
joined with the base metal being welded tend to pull base metal out of original
alignment and cause distortion.
 Distortion of all kinds increases with the volume of metal deposited.
Types of Distortion:
Distortion in weldments takes place by three dimensional changes that occur during
welding:
(a) Longitudinal shrinkage that occurs parallel to the weld line.

(b) Transverse shrinkage that occurs perpendicular to the weld line.
(c) Angular change that consists of rotation around the weld line.
(d) Bowing
(e) Buckling
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Different type of welding distortions
6.2 Effects of Metal Properties on Welding

Distortion
,
Higher coefficients of thermal expansion mean greater amounts of expansion, therefore
greater subsequent contraction and increased possibility for weldment distortion.
A metal with relatively low thermal conductivity will allow heat to flow out from a
source at a low rate. When welding, this results in a steep temperature gradient, increases
the shrinkage effect of the weld and plate adjacent to it and thus increases distortion.
The higher the yield strength of material in the weld area, the greater the amount of
residual stress that can act to distort the weld assembly. Conversely, the lower the yield,
the less likely (or severe) the possible distortion.
If modulus of elasticity is high, the material is more likely to resist movement or

distortion.
6.3 Control of Welding Distortion

If distortion is to be prevented or minimized in a weldment, strategies must be used in the
design and in shop practices to overcome the effects of the heating and cooling cycles.
Shrinkage or contraction cannot be prevented, but it can be controlled. There are various
practical ways for minimizing the distortion caused by contraction:
1. Control on weld metal volumes
Contraction forces to be kept as low as possible by using only that amount of weld metal
as is required by the joint. The more the metal deposited in a joint, the greater will be the
contraction forces.
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Correctly sizing the weld for the service requirements of the joint helps to control
distortion. The amount of weld metal can be minimized in a fillet joint by use of a flat or
slightly convex bead, and in a butt joint by proper edge preparation, fit up and
reinforcement. A bevel not exceeding 30 degrees on each side will give proper fusion at
the root of the weld, yet require minimal weld metal. J or U preparations further reduce
weld metal for thicker plates. A double joint requires about one half the weld metal of a
single joint.
When attaching stiffeners to plate, intermittent welds (in place of continuous welds) will
enable reduction of weld metal to one fourth, yet give all the strength needed. That means
weld to be kept as small as possible.
2. Use as few weld passes as possible
The more the number of passes, the more is resulting shrink age (because shrinkage of
each pass tends to be cumulative), and hence the distortion. Fewer passes need to be
applied with large electrodes. Electrodes to be selected with highest deposition
efficiency.
3. Welds to be placed near the neutral axis
This reduces distortion by providing a smaller leverage for the shrinkage (contraction)
forces to pull the plates out of alignment.
4. Balance welds around neutral axis
This will balance one shrinkage force against another. Design and welding sequence can
be used to effectively control distortion.
5. Use of backs step welding or skip method of welding
With this welding technique, weld bead increments are deposited in the direction
opposite to the progress of welding the joint e.g., each bead is deposited from right to left,
but the welding progresses from left to right.
As each bead is placed, die heat from the weld along the edges causes expansion there,
which temporarily separates the plates; but as the heat moves out across the plate, the
expansion along the outer edges brings the plate back together.
The expansion of the plate is most pronounced when the first bead is laid. With
successive beads, the plates expand less and less because of the locking effect of prior
welds. Back stepping may have less effect in some cases and cannot be economically
used in fully automatic welding.
6. Shrinkage forces may be allowed to work in the desired direction.
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Several assemblies can be preset out of position before welding so that the shrinkage
forces will pull the plates into alignment. Pre-bending or pre-springing the parts to be
welded is a simple example of the use of mechanically induced opposing forces to
counteract weld shrinkage
A common practice to balance shrinkage forces is to position identical weldments back to

back and clamp them tightly together. The welds are completed on both assemblies and
allowed to cool before the clamps are released.
Clamps, jigs and fixtures, that lock parts into a desired position and hold them until
welding is finished, are probably the most widely used means of controlling distortion in
small assemblies or component parts.
7. Balance shrinkage (contraction) forces with opposing forces.
The opposing forces may be
 The other shrinkage forces.

 The counterforce from the sag in a member produced by the force of gravity.
 Restraining forces imposed by clamps, jigs and fixtures.
 Restraining forces arising from the arrangement of members in the assembly.
8. Welding sequences.
Welding sequence implies the order of making the welds in a weldment. The weld metal
is placed at different points about the structure so that as it shrinks at one place it will
counteract the shrinkage forces of weld already made. Also, weld down hand whenever
possible. Weld outward, from a central point. Restrict heat affected zone by keeping
metal adjacent to joint as cool as possible.
9. Removal of shrinkage forces during or after welding
Peening is one method, in which force is applied to the weld (with the help of a hammer)
to make it thinner thereby making it longer and relieving residual stresses.
Stress relief by controlled heating of the weldment to an elevated temperature followed
by controlled cooling is another way to remove contraction forces.
10. Reduce the welding time
It is desirable to finish the weld quickly before too great a volume of surrounding metal
becomes expanded by the heat. Welding should be carried out as fast as possible.
11. Break down large weldments into subassemblies
In this manner, distortion errors can be rectified on each subassembly before final
erection.
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7.0 Welding of metals and their

alloys
Weldability of Steel:
Weldability is a term used to describe the relative ease or difficulty with which a metal or
alloy can be welded. . The better the weldability, the easier it is to weld. However,
weldability is complicated property as it encompasses the metallurgical compatibility of
the metal or alloy with a specific welding process, its ability to be welded with
mechanical soundness, and the capacity of the resulting weld to perform satisfactorily
under the intended service conditions.
The weldability of steel depends primarily on its hardenability and this, in turn, depends
largely on its composition (most importantly its carbon content). Steels with carbon
content under 0.3% are reasonably easy to weld, while steels with over 0.5% are difficult.
Other alloying elements that have an effect on the hardenability of steel, but to a much
lesser extent than carbon, are manganese, molybdenum, chromium, vanadium, nickel and
silicon. These, together with carbon, are all generally expressed as a single value as
carbon equivalent. The mathematical formula to calculate carbon equivalent is as follows
CE = C + Mn/6 + (Cr + Mo + V)/5 + (Ni + Cu)/15
The higher the carbon equivalent, the higher the hardenability, the more difficult the steel
is to weld, and the more susceptible the microstructure is likely to be to hydrogen
cracking.
7.1 Carbon steel welding

The electrodes used in a variety of processes for welding C-Mn steels are usually lower
in carbon and higher in Mn and Si than the steels being welded. The reasons being; low
carbon tends to improve toughness and lower hardenability and porosity. Higher Mn
content ties up S from dilution and higher Si deoxidizes the molten metal to
minimize porosity.
The low carbon levels in electrodes caused some concern over strength of the weld which
is required to match or exceed the base metal strength in many fabrication codes. Fine
austenitic grain size in most processes except ESW and high heat input SAW tend to
keep toughness and strength high.
7.2 Alloy steel welding
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Alloy steels contain deliberate additions of one or more elements to modify the corrosion
resistance, creep resistance, wear resistance, strength, toughness etc. Low alloy steels
contain less than 5-6% total alloy additions, usually of Chromium, nickel, molybdenum
and vanadium.
Alloy steels are more hardenable than C-Mn and micro-alloyed steels. The main concern
in HAZ is the toughness, which can be reduced by a combination of large grain size and
martensitic transformations and Hydrogen induced cracking and as a result need
preheating and PWHT to avoid these problems.
Weld metals have their problems with strength/toughness balance, HIC and in some cases
hot cracking. As strength level increases, toughness tends to decrease. At a given strength
level there are three ways to increase toughness; reduce grain size, reduce inclusion and
add nickel.
Many low alloy steels are weldable, but some grades are easier to weld than the others.
Weldability again varies with the chemistry of the steel, particularly with regard to its
carbon content, but also with regard to alloying additions, particularly manganese,
chromium, molybdenum, vanadium and nickel content. The weldability of alloy steels
therefore depends on its carbon equivalent which also include all these alloying elements.
Nickel steels with between 1 and 3% nickel may be welded with suitable welding
procedures, proper preheat and interpass temperature, current levels and heat inputs.
However as carbon and nickel content increases, the weldability of these steels becomes
worse.
This is due to an increase in hardenability and is reflected by an increase in the carbon
equivalent. Nickel steels should always be welded using a low hydrogen process, such as
MIG or TIG, or with controlled hydrogen consumables. Steels containing 5% or 9%
nickel have poor weldability.
All molybdenum, chromium-molybdenum, and chromium molybdenum-vanadium steels

are hardenable and not easily weldable. These alloy steels may crack when welded unless
attention is paid to preheat, interpass temperature, cooling rate and post-weld stress relief
heat treatment. Normally, low hydrogen processes or hydrogen-controlled consumables
are used to reduce the likelihood of cracking.
7.2.1 Chromium-Molybdenum steel welding

Cr-Mo steels are used in steam piping and gas and oil processing. At elevated
temperatures in service, Cr provides oxidation resistance and Mo provides secondary
hardening for creep resistance. These alloys are hardenable under quite slow cooling
rates and are sensitive to HIC in both HAZ and weld metal.
To ensure sound welding, filler metals for low-alloy steels should match or exceed the
base metal's tensile and yield strengths, as well as its elongation and toughness (Charpy
V-notch) properties. A perfect match is not always possible, however, so it is necessary
to find the closest one possible—with a few exceptions, of course.
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For example, when welding dissimilar low-alloy steels, it is recommended to match the
filler metals with the lower-strength base material. On the other hand, to gain a smaller
cross-sectional weld, base material strength may be overmatched. Overmatching occurs
when the filler metal used has a higher strength than the base material. This practice can
sometimes lead to cracking, especially if the strength of the weld metal far exceeds the
base metal's, such as when a low-alloy filler metal with a higher chrome-moly content
than the base metal is used.
If many Cr-Mo steels are welded, some restrictions on the number of filler metal
compositions specified is useful to minimize storage problems and to avoid mistakes. A
good combination for all grades is 1.25% Cr-0.5%Mo for all grades up to and including
itself.
2.25%Cr-1Mo for up to 3%Cr-1%Mo.
5%Cr-0.5%Mo for itself and 9%Cr-1% Mo for the rest. Sometimes Austenitic stainless
steel electrodes using E309 or E310 are used where PWHT is not possible.
7.2.2 Cryogenic Nickel steel welding

Ni-steels are used for very low temperature applications like storage of liquefied gases
upto -1960 C. Nickle levels vary from 2.25% to 9%. These steels are hardenable and used
in the normalized (quenched) and tempered condition.
9% Ni grade easily form stable Austenite within the matrix. The 5% Ni grade is more
difficult to stabilize due to lower Ni content. A three step heat treatment is necessary to
get desired properties. Austenitising at 850-9200C to get homogeneous austenite followed
by quenching, which produces untempered martensite. Tempering at 690-7600 C with
another quenching. In this process some austenite is formed. Then reversion annealing at
620-6600 C is done followed by quenching. It produces stable austenite of higher C & Ni
content. Similar results are obtained in 9% Ni grade steels by double normalizing and
tempering at 9000 C, 8000 C and 5700 C respectively.
Even slow cooling rate can produce martensite/bainite in the HAZ. Hence PWHT in the
range of 620-730 Deg C is common in 2.25 and 3.5% Ni steels. In 9% grade Ni steels
residual Austenite content decreases as the peak temperature in the HAZ exceeds 7000 C.
Toughness decreases as a result up to peak temperature of 9000 C.
The presence of nickel increases susceptibility to sulphur induced solidification

cracking. Ni bearing base materials is welded with matching electrode compositions with
both gas and flux shielded processes up to 3.5 % Ni grade. For depositing TIG root
passes in the 3.5 Ni alloys, a 2.5% Ni filler metal is normally used. Although the 3.5% Ni
consumables are capable of providing adequate toughness at -101°C they are very
sensitive to variations in welding parameters, heat input and welding position. This
sensitivity results in a wide variability of impact test results and hence for the more
critical applications, alternative nickel based filler metals such as AWS ENiCrFe-2 or
ENiCrFe-3 are often used enabling use of all of the conventional arc welding processes.
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Alternatively 1.5%Ni and 2.5%Ni steels may be welded with 2.5% Ni consumables and
these will provide adequate toughness down to -60°C in both the as-welded and post
weld heat treated (PWHT) condition.
The 5% Ni and 9% Ni alloys are conventionally welded using a nickel based filler metal
5% and 9% Ni grade steels need more care especially with flux shielded processes. To
maintain balance in strength and toughness.
A problem with the nickel based consumables that were used initially to weld these steels
is that their tensile strength is substantially less than that of the parent metal. Higher
strength fillers of the AWS ENiCrMo-3 (alloy 625) type are now readily available and
these are used for all type of arc welding processes. They also match parent metals with
respect to toughness and ultimate tensile strength although the yield strength of TIG,
MIG and SAW weld metals may fall below that specified for the 9%Ni steel.
Alternatively matching composition filler wire can be used for 5% and 9% Ni-steel with
an inert gas shielded process.
One major problem which is frequently encountered with the nickel steels is that of
residual magnetism causing arc blow. This problem is particularly with the 9%Ni steel
which can become easily magnetised, making it impossible to weld with the arc welding
processes. Extreme care to be taken during handling, transportation and erection to
minimise the effect. Use of alternating current during welding can help overcome some
of the difficulties but it may be necessary to de-magnetise the area surrounding the weld.
7.3 Stainless steel welding

All stainless steels contain 11.5% or more Cr and often contain other alloying elements
such as Ni and Mo. Some super stainless steel alloy may have many other alloying
elements for achieving specific properties and may contain less than 50% Fe. The
alloying elements of stainless steels are classified in two categories namely, Austenite
stabilisers (Ni, Mn, N, C etc) and ferrite stabilisers (Cr, Mo, Si, Cb etc). The balance
between these competing austenite and ferrite stabilizing elements determines the
microstructure of given stainless steels.
Martensitic stainless steels contain between 11.5% and 18% Cr and from 0.12 to 1.2% C.
They are mostly in hardened and tempered condition but can be supplied in annealed
condition. Martensite grades have the lowest corrosion resistance among the various
types of stainless steels. Ferritic stainless steels differ from martensitic grades with
respect to lower C content and in most cases higher %Cr content (up to 30%). Ferritic
stainless steels can suffer from embrittlement if exposed to 4750 C (due to Cr rich
phase), in the range of 540-8700 C (due to Sigma phase formation, an intermetallic of
Cr-Fe) for long time. General corrosion resistance of ferritic stainless steel is better than
martensitic stainless steels due to higher Cr content. Ferritic stainless steels are
virtually immune to chloride stress corrosion cracking.
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Austenitic stainless steels are austenitic at room temperature for their higher Ni content
(at least 8%).
Duplex stainless steels are mixtures of austenite and ferrite (approximately 50% each). A
typical composition is 25%Cr and 5% Ni. Mo is added for protection against pitting.
These steels are highly resistant to chloride stress corrosion cracking due to presence of
ferrite and also stronger than austenic grade and tougher than ferritic grade.
Super stainless steels are relatively new. The name is derived from high alloy content. In
addition to Ni and Cr, other elements such as Mo, Cu, Nb, N are added. These steels are
generally austenitic or duplex. Most widely used austenitic super stainless steel alloy is
UNS S08904 (904L). And most widely used duplex variety is 2708.
Most stainless steels are considered to have good weldability and may be welded by
several welding processes including the arc welding processes, resistance welding,
electron and laser beam welding, friction welding and brazing.
The coefficient of thermal expansion for the austenitic types is 50% greater than that of
carbon steel which must be considered to minimize distortion during welding. The low
thermal and electrical conductivity of austenitic stainless steel is generally helpful in
welding. Less welding heat is required to make a weld because the heat is not conducted
away from a joint as rapidly as in carbon steel.
7.3.1 Martensitic stainless steel

The basic problem of HAZ in martensitic stainless steels is HIC (Hydrogen induced
cracking) due to hardenability of the alloy. Preheating and PWHT is required in most of
the cases. In a thin section of SS410 grade welding without preheat and PWHT is
possible. Preheat is required if carbon content exceeds 0.15%. Preheat in the range of
200-3000C for C content up to 0.2% is recommended. A subcritical anneal in the
temperature range of 625-6750 C immediately after welding is recommended.
Type 410 can be welded with a matching composition electrode. Occasionally austenitic
electrodes such as E308, E309 or E310 are used to join martensitic grades. This can help
in avoiding HIC, making weaker weld metal absorb the thermal strains on cooling and
provides reasonable weld metal toughness without PWHT.
7.3.2 Ferritic stainless steel

Ferritic grades are not prone to HIC (Hydrogen induced cracking). The HAZ of the
ferritic grade will have large grain size after welding, which may reduce the toughness.
No preheating is required and lowest possible heat input is desirable.
Ferritic grades can be welded by GTAW process with similar filler metal chemistry when
the parent metal is thin. For thicker materials or when SMAW is used, it is necessary to
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use austenitic stainless steel electrode to avoid brittleness and improved corrosion
resistance in the weld metal. Electrodes recommended are E309 or E310.
7.3.3 Austenitic stainless steel

Austenite is not sensitive to HIC (hydrogen induced cracking) hence no preheating or
hydrogen control is required. However sensitization due to precipitation of Chromium
carbides is a major concern during welding of austenitic grade. Low grades Stainless
steels like 304L or 316L can be used if corrosion resistance at room temperature is the
only criterion.
If high temperature service is the criterion for design, strength is the main factor to be
considered. There are several grades intended for high temperature service (more than
5000 C) which have higher carbon content. These are classified as H grades such as
304H.
Reheat cracking may be seen in stabilized grade stainless steels such as type 321 and
347. It happens due to precipitation of TiC or NbC and/or carbonitrides after
dissolution at high peak temperatures.
In general, matching composition electrodes are used for austenitic grades. In some cases
matching electrodes do not exist or cannot be used due to weldability problems. The main
problem of austenitic stainless steel welding is the solidification cracking, primarily due
to sulphur segregation for low solubility in austenite.
Hot cracking can be prevented by adjusting the composition of the base material and
filler material to obtain a microstructure with a small amount of ferrite in the austenite
matrix.
There are two most common grades of Austenitic stainless steels 304L/304 which are
welded using 308L/308 filler, and 316L/316 which are welded using 316L/316 filler.
Basically there are a number of grades that do similar jobs, 302L, 303L and 304L (they
are 17/7, 18/8 and 19/9 respectively). 308L is 20/10 (having higher content of Chromium
and Nickel) and as a result it can be used to weld all 3 grades.
Stabilised grades like type 321 and 347 are only welded with E347 electrodes since Ti is
easily lost to oxidation in arc processes and as a result 321 filler metal or electrodes are
not used for 321 stainless steels.
Stainless steels are easy to weld but very difficult to keep without distortion. The
coefficient of linear expansion is 50% greater than that of mild steel and as a result the
welding to be done quickly minimizing the heat input.
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Welding Stainless Steel to Mild Steel:
The usual choice for the filler when welding stainless to mild is 309L. 309 is over alloyed
stainless steel (22/12) so when diluted by the mild steel gives a deposit approximately
like 308L / 304L.
There are other fillers that give a crack free weld, 312, 308MoL, 307 and 310. These
filler metal will all work but are less widely available than 309L.
7.3.4 Duplex stainless steel

In duplex stainless steels approximately 50-50 balance of ferrite and austenite is essential
to maintain good corrosion resistance and mechanical properties. As already mentioned,
an arc welding operation always means a more or less undesired heating of the area close
to the weld. This area, the heat affected zone (HAZ) or more accurately the high-
temperature heat affected zone, is brought to a temperature, where the material is almost
fully ferritic. At cooling a reformation of austenite starts in the grain boundaries and then
continues in the ferrite grains forming a Widmanstätten type structure.
When welding the DSS's the heat input and the cooling rate are important parameters. A
slow cooling rate gives the desired 50-50 balance, while a faster cooling rate, typical of
many welding procedures suppresses the transformation from Ferrite to austenite leaving
less austenite than required. At the same time at too rapid cooling chromium nitrides are
formed owing to the fact that at high temperatures the solubility of nitrogen in the ferrite
is increased and at rapid cooling, when the solubility drops, chromium nitrides are
formed. A limited amount of chromium nitrides does not have much effect on the
properties of the weld unless they are located to the grains close to the surface. In that
case, the corrosion resistance will be decreased because of the depletion of chromium.
Thus, welding of heavy wall thicknesses with too low heat input must be avoided.
Hence very low heat input should be avoided. If cooling rate is excessively slow,
intermetallic such as sigma phase may form embrittling the HAZ. Duplex stainless steels
do not suffer from excessive grain growth seen in ferritic stainless steels and are thus
more weldable.
During welding of duplex grade, care must be taken to avoid nitrogen pick up, as it is an
austenite stabilizer which will alter the balance of ferrite and austenite. Special
electrodes for specific grades are available to weld these materials.
A filler metal with the same chemical composition as the parent metal would give a weld
with excess of ferrite and poor mechanical and corrosion properties. Therefore, the filler
metal contains more Ni in order to give a higher portion of austenite in the weld,
It is concluded that modern duplex stainless steels weldability is as good as the austenitic
stainless steels. The same type of joint preparations can be used for both, with the
exception of one-sided butt welding where a slightly wider gap and a larger angle are
preferred.
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Welding with Wrong filler metal, no or too little filler metal or narrow groove or no root
gap can give a ferrite content over 70% risking lower ductility and reduced corrosion
resistance.
Too low and too high heat inputs for DSS welding should both be avoided, as both
extremes can lower the corrosion resistance of the welded joint.
Nitrogen additions to the shielding gas and the root gas can be used with advantage, when
a higher corrosion resistance is desired in the weld, than normally can be obtained by
pure argon. Especially in tube-to-tube sheet welding nitrogen is strongly recommended in
order to make the weld more austenitic. The duplex stainless steels are not sensitive to
hydrogen embrittlement. However, there is a risk for cold cracking under extreme
conditions, namely if a low-energy weld has caused high-ferrite zones in the bead and
HAZ (>70–75%) and if hydrogen is introduced by moisture in fluxes, electrode coverings
or as hydrogen addition in the shielding gas.
7.3.5 Super stainless steels

Super stainless steels also suffer from same problem like other stainless steels. In addition
there is a more of a problem with the formation of intermetallic phases which can lead to
corrosion or brittleness. For welding of super stainless steels the filler metals have in
most cases similar chemistry to the base metals. Heat input is restricted to optimize HAZ
properties.
7.4 Nickel alloys welding

Nickel is a relatively simple metal. It is face centred cubic and does not undergo any
phase changes as it cools from melting point to room temperature; similar to a stainless
steel. As a result Nickel and its alloys cannot be hardened by quenching or any other heat
treatment so cooling rates are less important than with, say, carbon steel and preheating is
rarely required unless the room temperature is very low.
Nickel and its alloys are used in a very wide range of applications - from high
temperature oxidation and creep resistance service to aggressive corrosive environments
and very low temperature cryogenic applications. Nickel may be used in a commercially
pure form but is more often combined with other elements to produce two families of
alloys as described below.
Nickels alloys are of two types; solid solution alloy that can only be work hardened and
precipitation hardened alloy. They are used for two application areas; resistance to
corrosion and oxidation or resistance to deformation (creep) and oxidation at high
temperatures. Like austenitic stainless steels, Ni base alloys have aversion to sulphur.
Therefore hot cracking is the major problem. Silicon promotes hot cracking in some
alloys. Minor addition of Boron and zirconium can promote liquation cracking in the
HAZ. Since many applications of Ni alloys involve corrosion, it is important that both the
weld zone and HAZ have equivalent or higher corrosion resistance than the base metal.
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As carbide precipitation problem in Ni alloys is analogous to sensitization in stainless

steels, by using low heat input and stringer passes for multi-pass welds in thicker material
this problem can be avoided.
Welding of heat treatable (age hardenable) Nickel base alloys in its aged condition can
result in severe loss of strength in HAZ. In addition to softening of HAZ, can also result
in cracking in the areas adjacent to weld metal. This is because owing to the softening of
HAZ, these areas become the weakest part of the entire weldment. Unless relatively
ductile weld metal is used and severe restraints are avoided, cracking can occur easily in
these areas. Of course one way of avoiding the softening of HAZ is to weld the alloy in
solution annealed condition first and then post weld age harden the entire weldment to
develop high strength.
The third possible welding problem is porosity. The main culprit being nitrogen. As little
as 0.025% nitrogen will form pores in the solidifying weld metal. Care must be taken to
ensure that the weld area is sufficiently protected and this is particularly relevant in site
welding applications. A small amount of hydrogen (up to 10%) added to the argon shield
gas was found to reduce the problem to some extent.
Oxygen is also a cause of porosity when it combines with carbon in the weld pool to form
carbon monoxide. As a result virtually all filler metals for nickel alloys contain elements
to deoxidise and denitrify the deposited weld metal to avoid porosity. These are Al, Ti,
Mn and Nb.
All the conventional welding processes like GTAW, GMAW and SMAW can be used to
weld nickel and its alloys and welding consumables with matching chemistry are
available. As mentioned above, nickel and its alloys are similar in many respects to the
austenitic stainless steels; and as a result welding procedures are also similar. However,
Nickel has a coefficient of thermal expansion less than that of stainless steel so distortion
and distortion control measures are similar to those of carbon steel
7.4.1 Corrosion resistant work hardenable Nickel alloys

Pure Nickel is simplest of these. UNS N0200 (Nickel200) and UNS N02201 (Nickel 201)
are the best examples. These metals are simpler to weld with similar filler metals with
deoxidisers added to it to avoid porosity. ER Ni-1 is an example which contains 1.5% Al
and 2.5%Ti.
The most common grade of Nickel copper alloy is Monel 400. This alloy is relatively
easy to weld using ERNiCu-7 with precautions taken for hot cracking and porosity.
7.4.2 Nickel- chromium or Nickel-chromium-iron alloys

These alloys were developed for resistance to oxidation at high temperatures. With
additions of Mo, Ti and Nb they also resist corrosion at ambient or slightly elevated
temperatures. Example of oxidation resisting types are Inconel 600, 601 and 690. While
examples of corrosion resisting types are Hastelloy C-276 (lower Fe) and Hastelloy-G
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(higher Fe). Inconel 625 caters to both application areas. electrodes such as ENiCrMo-3
or filler metal ERNiCrMo-3 is essentially Inconel 625 and is used for welding a wide
variety of alloys from Austenitic stainless steels up through UNS N06007 (Hastelloy-G)
7.4.3 Iron-Nickel-Chromium alloys

These include Incoloy 800 and incoloy 825. Hot cracking of these alloys are very
common if welded with filler metals having similar chemical composition. ERNiCr-3
(67% Ni with Min 20% Cr) with low dilution procedures shall be used to weld these
alloys. The Nb content in the filler metal helps to minimize hot cracking due to Silicon.
7.4.4 Nickel-Molybdenum alloys

These alloys were developed to resist reducing acids and salts, and include Hastelloy B
and Hastelloy B-2. They are welded with similar composition filler metal. No electrodes
suitable for these alloys can be used to weld other types of Nickel alloys. The
electrodes/filler metals are ENiMo-1 or ERNiMo-1 and ENiMo-7 or ERNiMo-7.
7.4.5 Precipitation hardened Nickel super alloys

These alloys are Nickel based or Nickel iron based. Examples of Nickel base alloys are
Nimonic 80A, Inconel 718 and Udimet 500. Examples of Nickel iron alloys are Incoloy
901. These alloys are divided into alloys which can be welded and alloys which should
not be welded, on the basis of total alloy element level which causes precipitation
hardening. The main culprit for precipitation hardening are Al and Ti. Higher is the
content of these alloying elements more difficult is the welding of these alloys due to
precipitation of stable Ni3(Al,Ti) in the HAZ causing strain age cracking. Generally the
standard heat treatment of the original alloys is a solution treatment at 11500 C followed
by precipitation heat treatment for 12 hrs at 7000 C. welding in the solution treated
condition is the best way to fabricate these alloys. There will be slight aging process in
HAZ at the temperature range of 600-10000 C. A subsequent PWHT will age the whole
zone and restores strength consistently throughout the structure.
7.5 Aluminium and its alloy welding

Pure aluminium has poor mechanical properties and is therefore not used in load bearing
constructions. The metal usually alloyed and heat treated or hardened to obtain the
required properties. The main groups of aluminium alloys are: Al-Cu, Al-Mn, Al-Si, Al-
Mg, Al-Si-Mg and Al-Zn.
Aluminium is not subject to a lattice trans-formation during cooling, thus there is no

structure transformation and consequently no danger of hardening in the heat affected
zone as with steel. However the heat from welding has great influence on the internal
structure of the aluminium material. The strength in the HAZ (heat affected zone) is
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reduced, sometimes by as much as 50%, due to the thermal treatment the material
receives during welding.
With aluminium, the temperature gradient around the welding point is considerably
smaller than with steel due to much larger thermal conductivity of Aluminium. Although
the peak temperature during Al welding is about 900°C below steel, due to higher
thermal conductivity Aluminium requires heat input almost as much as carbon steel.
The following practices need to be followed in order to reduce distortions due to

shrinkage.
 Highly productive welding methods to be used with lowest heat input as possible.
 Maximum welding speed to be used.
 Sheets movement to be made freely moving.
 In case of transverse and longitudinal weld, transverse weld to be done first.
 Butt joints to be welded before fillet joint.
 Begin welding in the center of the structure and proceed symmetrically outwards.
 Fixtures which provide even cooling need to be used
 Weld as little as possible.
The basic rule is symmetrical welding with minimum heat input.
There are some problems which are encountered in Aluminium welding
Due to the high thermal expansion of aluminium, high tensions develop during
solidification of the weld pool after welding. Higher is the interval between the solidus
and liquidus line of an alloy easier is the formation of cracks in the solidifying weld.
Preheating is the best way of avoiding this cracking problem.
Another major problem during Al welding is the porosity of the welded joint. Pores in Al
are mostly formed by hydrogen.
Solubility of hydrogen in aluminium changes abruptly from liquid to solid state.
That means melt dissolves many times more of the hydrogen than the just forming crystal
at the same temperature. This leads to a surplus of hydrogen in the melt due to the
crystallisation during solidification. This surplus hydrogen precipitates in form of a gas
bubble at the solidifying front. As the melting point of Aluminium is very low and
Aluminium has very high heat conductivity, the solidification speed of Aluminiam is
relatively high. As a result, in the melt ousted gas bubbles have often no chance to rise all
the way to the surface. Instead, they remain in the solid welds as pores.
Aluminium alloys are often welded with consumable of the same type, however, quite
often over-alloyed consumables are used to compensate burn-off losses (especially with
Mg and Zn because of their low boiling point) and to improve the mechanical properties
of the seam.
The most versatile filler metal for Aluminium alloy welding is ER4043 containing 5% Si.
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Virtually all Aluminium alloy can be welded with this filler metal without cracking but
optimum properties may not be achieved
7.6 Copper and its alloys

Copper and copper alloys are classified into following major groups:
 Commercially pure copper(99.3%Cu)

 Copper zinc alloys (Brass)
 Copper-tin alloys (Bronze).
 Copper silicon alloys (Silicon bronze).
 Copper Aluminium alloys (Aluminium bronze).
 Copper Nickel alloys (Cupro-nickel)
 Copper Nickel Zinc alloys (Nickel silver)
Most of the copper alloys can be welded, but they have some peculiar characteristics
which need to be discussed. Pure copper and very low alloy copper have very high
thermal conductivity (diffusivity) and as a result are difficult to melt even in arc welding.
Copper dissolves significant quantity of oxygen forming copper and copper oxide
eutectic. If hydrogen is absorbed during welding, a large quantity of porosity (steam) is
formed.
High electrical and thermal conductivity of copper and high copper alloys has adverse
effect on weldability. The welding heat rapidly conducted into base metal giving rise to
incomplete fusion in the weld. Pre-heating of copper alloys reduces welding heat input
requirements for the good weld fusion.
Copper alloys with wide liquidus to solidus temperature range, such as copper- nickel and
copper-tin alloys are susceptible to hot cracking.
Hot cracking in copper alloys can be reduced by following technique;
 Minimising heat input and interpass temperature.

 Increasing the size of root pass and reducing the size of root opening.
 Reducing restraint during welding.
Certain elements such as Zinc, Cadmium and phosphorus have low boiling point as a
result vaporization of these elements during welding may result is porosity.
For copper-Zinc alloys (Brass), generation of zinc fume results in welds which are likely
to be porous and consequently unacceptable, particularly if autogenous welding is
attempted. Zinc fume also makes visual observation of the welding operation difficult.
This problem mostly encountered when Zinc content in brass is more than 15%.
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A partial solution to this problem is to use a non-matching filler metal, such as aluminum
bronze or silicon bronze, which provides a surface film on the weld pool, thus restricting
fume evolution. The risks involved in using such a technique are that solidification of the
non-matching weld metal will occur before solidification of the parent metal, possibly
causing heat-affected zone cracking and incurring the danger of differential corrosion
between the parent and filler metals in service.
Copper and most copper alloys can be joined by arc welding. Generally welding
techniques that use gas shield are preferred. SMAW welding can also be used for non-
critical applications. Argon or Helium or mixture of these two gases is used as shielding
gases in GTAW, PAW and GMAW process.
Copper Nickel alloys which are called cupronickel are most commonly used in process
equipment.
Copper-nickel alloys have a remarkable combination of good resistance to both corrosion
and bio-fouling in seawater. As they are also readily welded and fabricated, they are an
obvious choice for piping systems, heat exchangers and structures for marine use.
There are two main grades of copper-nickel alloy used in marine service - 90-10 (10%
nickel) and 70-30 (30% nickel). The 70-30 alloy is stronger and has greater resistance to
seawater corrosion, but 90-10 which provide sufficient corrosion resistance and being
less expensive, tends to be more widely used.
Mostly GTAW and GMAW welding processes are used with matching filler metal or
mostly with 30% Nickel composition. While consumables are available that deposit weld
metal similar in composition to the 90-10 copper-nickel alloy, welds made with them
may not have adequate corrosion resistance for all applications. Consumables for the 70-
30 alloy, on the other hand, offer superior deposition characteristics and the corrosion
resistance of 70-30 weld metal is at least comparable to each of the base metal alloys.
These consumables are therefore recommended for both types of alloy.
Due to less thermal conductivity of 70-30 alloy, fusion is good. However due to presence
of Nickel, sulphur or sulphur bearing compounds must be excluded.
Porosity when welding either grade can be a problem and to reduce the risk, the filler
metals contain substantial amounts (around 0.5%) titanium. Cleanliness of weld
preparations and filler wires is also important, along with the use of high purity shielding
gas. Depositing a pore-free root pass can be particularly difficult. Insufficient filler metal
coupled with a large amount of dilution from the parent metal may result in unacceptable
porosity. Substantial amount of filler metal along with a larger than normal root gap will
reduce porosity to acceptable levels.
Both the alloys (90-10 and 70-30) are sensitive to hot cracking. Like other nickel alloys
the main harmful element is sulphur but lead, phosphorus and carbon will also have an
adverse effect on hot cracking. Hence cleanliness is crucial and all grease, oil, marker
crayon, paint etc must be removed from the weld preparation and the adjacent areas
before welding. To reduce further the risk of hot fissuring the interpass temperature
should be limited to 150OC.
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The alloys have high coefficients of thermal expansion and more extensive tack welding
would be required to prevent excessive distortion and root gaps closing up during
welding.
Most of the bronzes such as tin, silicon or aluminium bronzes have low Thermal
conductivity (diffusivity) and hence can be melted easily. For welding of Tin bronzes,
generally phosphor or beryllium bronze filler metals are used. Silicon bronzes are welded
using similar filler metal composition.
Aluminium bronzes have low thermal conductivity (diffusivity) and can be easily welded
with similar composition of filler metal with good resistance to hot cracking.
7.7 Reactive metals and alloys welding

Reactive metals such as Titanium and Zirconium react with and readily dissolve the
atmospheric gases oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen at elevated temperature and as a result
they become hardened and embrittled.
7.7.1 Titanium and Titanium alloy

Titanium is a reactive metal; it will burn in pure oxygen at 600°C and in nitrogen at
around 800°C. Oxygen and nitrogen will also diffuse into titanium at temperatures above
400°C raising the tensile strength but embrittling the metal.
Welding of reactive metals and alloys require isolation and protection from atmospheric
gases above all other welding precautions. Tough weld metal requires very low
contamination level. Because of the affinity of titanium and its alloys for oxygen,
nitrogen and hydrogen and the subsequent embrittlement, fluxed welding processes are
not recommended. Arc welding is therefore restricted to the gas shielded processes (TIG,
MIG and plasma-TIG)
Only inert gas welding should be used with Argon as a shielding gas. GTAW is the best
process for welding of these types of alloy. A shiny, bright silvery colour is ideal, but
rarely achieved. A golden or straw colour indicates minimum contamination and good
corrosion resistance. Shades of blue indicate thicker oxides and lower corrosion
resistance. Purple or dull grey indicate significant contamination.
All reactive alloys should be cleaned and deburred before welding. Vapour degreasing
and solvent degreasing are the most common methods used. Degreasing should be
followed by pickling in Nitric-hydrofluoric acid mixture (40% HNO3+4% HF).
A significant amount of welding of titanium alloys is carried out without the use of filler
metals. When filler wire is used, generally a composition matching that of the parent
metal is selected.
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Pure titanium undergoes an allotropic transformation. It is hcp α at room temperature and

becomes bcc β above temperature of 8820 C and melts at 16680 C.
Ti alloys can be α, α-β, or β depending on alloy type and level, since the high temperature
phase can be stabilized by certain elements, as is austenite in stainless steels. α stabilisers
like aluminium, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, gallium etc expand the α field and raises the
transition temperature. β stabilisers have two possible effects; the α field is suppressed
and the transition temperature is lowered. Molybdenum, tungsten, vanadium, tantalum etc
are β stabilisers. α –β alloys, the most common of which is Ti-6Al-4V, are the most
widely used alloys. The strengthening of the alloy takes place due to precipitation of
Ti3Al in the matrix after tempering. So quenching (martensite is formed) and tempering
gives highest strength to these types of alloys. Weldability of these type of alloys are
good and often welded in the annealed condition and then aged during PWHT to develop
full properties in the base metal, HAZ and weld metal. ERTi-5 and ERTi-5ELI filler
metals can be used for these alloys. Commercial Titanium can also be used with slight
loss in strength.
For β alloys strengthening is done by solution hardening and precipitation hardening at

4800 C for up to 24 Hrs. Embrittlement may occur due to presence of ω(omega) phase
(formation of TiCr2 ).The first commercial alloy of this type is Ti-13V-11Cr-3Al. Modern
alloys are more sophisticated chemically to avoid these problems. A typical modern alloy
is Ti-15V-3Sn-3Cr-3Al. There is only one β type filler metal available commercially,
SAE/AMS 4959. These alloys generally have low weld metal strength and good ductility
in the as welded condition. A complete heat treatment including solution treatment and
precipitation heat treatment of the entire fabrication is essential if the weld metal must
have similar properties to the base metal.
7.7.2 Zirconium and Zirconium alloy

There are very few Zirconium alloys available. The precautions required for welding are
same as that of Ti welding. For commercially pure Zirconium ErZr2 filler metal is used.
There are filler metals available for welding Zirconium alloys such as, ERZr3 (for alloy
with Sn) and ERZr4 (for alloys with Nb). Nuclear grade Zr alloys require special filler
metals with strict control of hafnium content.
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8.0 Pre heating and post weld heat

treatment
For some service conditions, preheating and/or postweld heat treatment may be a
requirement. These types of thermal treatments are generally required in order to ensure
sound weld and HAZ.
8.1 Pre-heating
Preheating may be performed before welding by the use of gas burners, oxy-gas flames,
electric blankets, induction heating, or by heating in a furnace. For good results, it is
essential for the heating to be uniform around the joint area.
It is important to ensure that the entire material thickness has been heated to a uniform
temperature. In addition to establishing a preheat temperature, an interpass temperature
limitation may need to be considered for some applications. When an interpass
temperature is specified, the weld area must be inspected prior to depositing the next
weld bead. Welding to be discontinued if the measured temperature exceeds the
maximum interpass temperature specified for that material. The weldment must be
permitted to cool down to the specified upper limit of the interpass temperature before
continuing with the weld.
The main purposes of pre-heating are as follow.
Reduce the Level of Thermal Stress:
Reducing the temperature differential by preheating the base material will minimize
problems associated with distortion and excessive residual stress. If preheating is not
carried out, a large differential in temperature can occur between the weld area and the
parent material. Preheating reduces the temperature differentials between the weld metal
and the parent metal, thus minimizing the tendency to crack.
Minimize the Rate of Weld Hardening:
Weld metal and the adjoining heat-affected-zone can harden and crack when cooled
rapidly from high temperatures. Preheating generally prevents weld and HAZ both from
becoming extremely hard by reducing the rate of cooling.
Compensate for High Heat Loss:
Thick-section carbon steel, as well as copper and aluminum alloys having high thermal
conductivity, benefit from preheating before welding. The cooling rate of the deposited
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weld metal is reduced allowing time for the weld metal to fuse properly with the adjacent
base metal.
Reduce Hydrogen Cracking:
Pre-heating will dry the plate surface and remove the moisture that may otherwise cause
porosity, hydrogen embrittlement, or cracking through the introduction of hydrogen
during the welding process.
Reduce Porosity:
Due to welding arc, water is split down into its elements, hydrogen and oxygen, the
hydrogen easily dissolves in the weld metal at its high temperatures and can produce
weld porosity during solidification. Preheating drives off moisture from the joint surface,
eliminating a prime source of hydrogen.
Improve Microstructure of the Heat-Affected Zone:
Low-alloy steels containing elements such as chromium, nickel, molybdenum, and

vanadium are susceptible to cracking in the heat-affected-zone. By reducing the post
weld cooling rate, preheating improves the microstructure of this zone thus leading to
formation of more ductile microstructures.
8.2 Post weld Heat Treatment

In order to ensure the material strength of a welded component is retained after welding,
a process known as Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT) is performed. PWHT is an
operation that can affect the strength and toughness of a welded joint, its corrosion
resistance and the level of residual stress. PWHT is also a mandatory operation specified
in many application codes and standards.
Heat treatment after welding, which is termed as Post weld Heat treatment may be
carried out for one or more of three fundamental reasons:
 To reduce the risk of in-service failures such as stress corrosion or brittle fracture
by reducing the residual stress in the welded component
 To produce specific metallurgical structures in order to achieve the required
mechanical properties
 To achieve dimensional stability in subsequent tolerances during machining
operations or during service.
Post-weld heat treatment is most generally used to relieve the stress. The purpose of
stress relieving is to remove any internal or residual stresses that may be induced from
the welding operation. High level residual stresses can occur in weldment due to restraint
by the parent metal during weld solidification. The stresses may be as high as the yield
Partha Das
68
strength of material itself. When combined with normal load stresses, the total stress may
exceed the design stresses.
Stress relief after welding may be necessary in order to reduce the risk of brittle fracture,
to avoid subsequent distortion on machining, or to eradicate the risk of stress corrosion.
During PWHT residual stress in a carbon manganese steel falls reasonably steadily from
ambient to around 6000 C but the low alloy steels need to be above 4000 C before the
residual stress begins to fall. Stainless steel is hardly affected until the temperature
exceeds 5000 C.
There is therefore a range of soak temperatures for the various alloys to achieve an
acceptable reduction in residual stress without adversely affecting the mechanical
properties of the weld joint. In C-Mn steels this temperature will be between 550-6200 C,
in low alloy steels the range is somewhere between 650-7500 C and for stainless steels
between 800-8500 degree C.
Extremely coarse weld structures in steel, such as those obtained with the electro-slag
welding process, may require normalising after welding. This treatment will refine the
coarse grain structure, reduce stresses after welding, and remove any hard zones in the
heat-affected zone.
The precipitation hardening alloys, such as the heat treatable aluminum alloys, are
sometimes required to undergo post-weld heat treatment to regain their original
properties. In some cases, only an aging treatment is used, although a full solution heat
treat and artificial aging treatment will provide better recovery of properties after
welding.
For Cr-Mo or Cr-Mo-V steels generally post heating (after welding) is carried out in
addition to Final stress relieve (PWHT) treatment in the form of De-hydrogenation
treatment (DHT) and/ or Intermediate stress relief (ISR).
Dehydrogenation heat treatment (DHT) is carried out at 3500C x 4 h after welding, to
minimize the susceptibility to cold cracking due to residual hydrogen in the weld. DHT
drives off hydrogen in weld and HAZ. DHT can also be carried out at lower temperature
but at longer holding period.
Intermediate Stress Relieving (ISR) is done at temperatures typically between 600°C and
650°C to insure a partial removal of the residual stresses in the weld. ISR is generally
carried out for highly stressed joints (nozzles, build up rings, etc) when PWHT cannot be
carried out immediately after weld has cooled. DHT is not required if ISR is carried out
on the weldment, however DHT is mandatory for most of the Cr-Mo or Cr-Mo-V steels.
----------------------End--------------------
Partha Das

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Welding Fundamentals 3

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1

 1.0 Welding processes

 2.0 Types of welded joints

 3.0 Welding Metallurgy

 4.0 Welding defects

 5.0 Chemical reactions in welding with gas

 6.0 Welding distortion

 7.0 Welding of metals and their alloys

 8.0 Pre-heating and post-weld heat treatment

1.0 Welding processes

Welding is a process by which a permanent joint is made by establishing interatomic

To obtain satisfactory weld it is desired to have following;

Welding processes are classified into following.

Welding processes and letter designation.

Friction Welding FRW

1.1 Arc welding

There are two types of electrodes; consumable electrodes and non-consumable

 Covered electrode arc welding.

 Cellulose coatings: It contains mainly of cellulose types materials. The function

Welding electrode is mainly classified into two broad categories:

E – Indicates that it's an electrode.

Details of last digit are as follow

Digit Type of Coating Welding Current

1.1.1 Carbon arc welding (CAW)

Modification of Carbone Arc Welding is Twin Carbon Electrode Arc Welding,

Another variation uses compressed air for cutting.

1.1.2 Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)

1.1.3 Submerged arc welding (SAW)

Welding is mostly spatter-free and there is no need for fume extraction.

The major advantages of SAW process are:

 High speed and deposition rate.

1.1.4 Electro-slag welding (ESW)

Following are the advantages of Electroslag Welding:

 High deposition rate.

The disadvantages are as follow.

 Coarse grain structure of the weld.

1.1.5 Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)

1.1.6 Plasma arc welding (PAW)

1.1.7 Gas metal arc welding (GMAW)

Spray Transfer Mode:

Advantages of GMAW are as follow:

 Good Quality weld.

Following are the limitations of GMAW

 Process is highly sensitive to contaminants

 Portability of the equipment with high pressure cylinders

1.2 Brazing (B)

1.3 Oxy Fuel Gas Welding (OFW)

1.4 Resistance Welding (RW)

1.5 Other Welding Processes

1.5.1 Electron beam welding (EBW)

 Single pass welding of thick joints.

 High equipment cost.

1.5.2 Laser beam welding (LBW)

Laser beam welding

Some of the advantages of LBW in comparison to EBW are as follows:

 Laser beam does not need vacuum to transmit.

1.5.3 Thermit welding (TW)

Fe2O3 + 2Al= 2Fe + Al2O3

3 Cu2O + 2Al = 6Cu + Al2O3

1.6 Soldering (S)

Soldering is "a group of joining processes which produces coalescence of materials by

Filler materials include combinations of tin-lead, tin-silver-lead, tin-zinc, silver-copper-

1.7 Solid State Welding (SSW)