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Engineering Surveying-I Course instructor: Shoaib Ahmed
Batch: 17-18
FE Civil
ANGLES AND DIRECTIONS
1. INTRODUCTION: Determining the locations of points and orientations of lines frequently

depends on the observation of angles and directions. In surveying, directions are given by
azimuths and bearings. Angles measured in surveying are classified as either horizontal or
vertical, depending on the plane in which they are observed. Horizontal angles are the basic
observations needed for determining the bearings and azimuths. Vertical angles are used in
trigonometric leveling, tacheometry and for reducing slope distances to horizontal.
Angles are most often directly observed in the field with total station
instruments, although in the past transits, theodolites, and
compasses have been used. Three basic requirements determine an
angle. As shown in Fig. 1, they are (1) reference or starting line, (2)
direction of turning, and (3) angular distance (value of the angle).
UNITS: Angular distance have units of:

i. Degree (in decimal number)
ii. Degree, minutes, seconds
iii. Radians
1 rad = 57.3o
Fig. 1 Basic requirements in
determining angles
2. KINDS OF HORIZONTAL ANGLES: The kinds of horizontal angles most commonly

observed in surveying are (1) interior angles, (2) angles to the right, and (3) deflection angles.
Because they differ considerably, the kind used must be clearly indicated in field notes.
2.1 Interior angles: Interior angles, shown in Fig. 2(a), are observed on the inside of a closed
polygon. Normally the angle at each apex within the polygon is measured. Then a check can be
made on their values because the sum of all interior angles in any polygon must equal (n – 2)180o
where n is the number of angles.
Exterior angles are located outside a closed polygon, are explements of interior angles. The
advantage to be gained by observing them is their use as another check, since the sum of the
interior and exterior angles at any station must total 360°.
2.2 Angles to the right: Angles to the right are

measured clockwise from the rear to the forward
station. “As a survey progresses, stations are
commonly identified by consecutive alphabetical
letters (as in Fig. 2(a)), or by increasing numbers”.
Thus, the interior angles of Fig. 2(a) are also angles to
the right.
Angles to the left, turned counterclockwise from the

rear station. A serious mistake can occur if
counterclockwise angles are observed and recorded
or assumed to be clockwise. To avoid this confusion, it
is recommended that a uniform procedure of always
observing angles to the right be adopted and the
direction of turning noted in the field book with a Fig. 2(a) Closed polygon, clockwise
sketch. interior angles (Angles to the right)
2.3 Deflection angles: These are observed from an extension of the back line to the forward
station (Fig. 2(b)). They are used principally on the long linear alignments of route surveys. As
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Handout # 2 CE-103 Batch: 2014-15
illustrated in the figure, deflection angles may be observed to the right (clockwise) or to the left
(counterclockwise) depending on the direction of the route. Clockwise angles are considered
plus, and counterclockwise ones minus, as shown in the figure.

Deflection angles are always smaller than 180° and appending an
R or L to the numerical value identifies the direction of turning.
Thus the angle at B in Fig. 2(b) is (R), and that at C is (L). Deflection
angles are the only exception where counterclockwise observation
of angles should be made.
Fig. 2(b) Deflection angles

3. DIRECTION OF A LINE: The direction of a line is defined by the horizontal angle between
the line and an arbitrarily chosen reference line called a meridian.
4. AZIMUTHS: Azimuths are horizontal angles observed

clockwise from any reference meridian. In plane surveying,
azimuths are generally observed from north. Examples of
azimuths observed from north are shown in Fig. 3. As
illustrated, they can range from 0° to 360° in value. Thus
the azimuth of OA is 70°; of OB, 145°; of OC, 235°; and of
OD, 330°.
A line’s forward direction can be given by its forward

azimuth, and its reverse direction by its back azimuth. In
plane surveying, forward azimuths are converted to back
azimuths, and vice versa, by adding or subtracting 180°.
For example, if the azimuth of OA is 70°, the azimuth of AO
is 70° + 180° = 250°. If the azimuth of OC is 235°, the
azimuth of CO is 235° - 180° = 55°. Fig. 3 Azimuths
5. BEARINGS: Bearings are another system for designating directions of lines. There are two
types of bearings, 1) whole circle bearing and 2) quadrant bearing.
5.1 Whole Circle Bearing: The system used to define a direction is called the whole circle
bearing system (WCB). Azimuths and WCB is represents the same quantity. In UK it is
referred to as WCB while in US it is azimuth.
Fig. 4(a) shows the WCB of the lines as follows:
WCB OA = 40°
WCB OB = 120°
WCB OC = 195°
WCB OD = 330°
Fig. 4(a) Whole Circle Bearing(WCB) Fig. 4(b) Quadrant Bearing (QB)
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5.2 Quadrant Bearing: The Quadrant Bearing (QB) of a line is defined as the acute horizontal
angle between a reference meridian and the line. The angle is observed from either the north
or south toward the east or west, to give a reading smaller than 90°.The letter N or S
preceding the angle, and E or W following it shows the proper quadrant. Thus, a properly
expressed bearing includes quadrant letters and an angular value. An example is N80°E. In
Fig. 4(b), all bearings in quadrant NOE are measured clockwise from the meridian. Thus the
bearing of line OA is N70°E. All bearings in quadrant SOE are counterclockwise from the
meridian, so OB is S35°E. Similarly, the bearing of OC is S55°W and that of OD, N30°W.When
lines are in the cardinal directions, the bearings should be listed as “Due North,” “Due East,”
“Due South,” or “Due West.”
In Fig. 4(c) assume that a compass is set up successively at points A, B, C, and D and bearings
read on lines AB, BA, BC, CB, CD, and DC. As previously noted, bearings AB, BC, and CD are
forward bearings; those of BA, CB, and DC, back bearings. Back bearings should have the
same numerical values as forward bearings but opposite letters. Thus if bearing AB is N44°E,
bearing BA is S44°W.
Fig. 4(c) Understanding forward and back bearing
Q1: The whole circle bearing of a boundary line is 128o13’46’’. Convert this to a quadrant
bearing? (Ans: S51o46’14’’E)
(See lecture notes for solution)
Q2: The first course of a boundary survey is written as N37°13’W. What is its equivalent whole
circle bearing? (Ans: 322°47’)
6. MAGNETIC DECLINATION: Magnetic declination is the horizontal angle observed from the
geodetic meridian to the magnetic meridian. Navigators call this angle variation of the compass.
An east declination exists if the magnetic meridian is east of geodetic north; a west declination
occurs if it is west of geodetic north. East declinations are considered positive and west
declinations negative. The relationship between geodetic north, magnetic north, and magnetic
declination is given by the expression:
geodetic azimuth = magnetic azimuth ± magnetic declination
Q3: Assume the magnetic bearing of a property line was recorded as S43 °30’E in 1862. At that
time the magnetic declination at the survey location was 3°15’W. What geodetic bearing is
needed for a subdivision property plan? (Ans: 133°15’ or S46°45’E)
Q4: Assume the magnetic bearing of line AB read in 1878 was N26°15’E. The declination at the
time and place was 7°15’W. In 2000, the declination was 4°30’E. What was the magnetic bearing
in year 2000? (Ans: N14o30’E)
7. LOCAL ATTRACTION: Metallic objects and direct-current electricity, both of which cause a
local attraction, affect the main magnetic field. As an example, when set up beside an old time
streetcar with overhead power lines, the compass needle would swing toward the car as it
approached, then follow it until it was out of effective range. If the source of an artificial
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disturbance is fixed, all bearings from a given station will be in error by the same amount.
However, angles calculated from bearings taken at the station will be correct.
Q5: Following bearings were observed in running a compass traverse (readings taken from
compass). Apply correction for local attraction.
Line Fore bearing (F.B) Back bearing (B.B)
AB 44°30’ 226°30’
BC 124°30’ 303°15’
CD 181°00’ 1°00’
DA 289°30’ 108°45’
Q6: Apply the correction for local attraction:

LM 66°30’ 246°30’
MN 142°00’ 320°00’
NO 255°30’ 79°00’
OL 357°00’ 175°30’
8. SURVEYOR’S COMPASS: Figure 5(a) shows the surveyor’s compass. The instrument consists
of a metal baseplate (A) with two sight vanes (B) at the ends. The compass box (C) and two small
level vials (D) are mounted on the baseplate, the level vials being perpendicular to each other.
When the compass is set up and the bubbles are in the vials centered, the compass box is
horizontal and ready for use.
A single leg called a Jacob staff supported early compasses. A ball-and socket joint and a clamp
were used to rotate the instrument and clamp it in its horizontal position. Later versions, such as
that shown in Figure 5(a), were mounted on a tripod. This arrangement provided greater
stability. The compass box of the surveyor’s compass was covered with glass to protect the
magnetized steel needle inside. The needle was mounted on a pivot at the center of a circle that
was graduated in degrees. A top view of a surveyor’s compass box with its graduations is
illustrated in Figure 5(b). In the figure, the zero graduations are at the north and south points of
the compass and in line with the two sight-vane slits that comprise the line of sight. Graduations
are numbered in multiples of 10° clockwise and counter clockwise from 0° at the north and
south, to 90° at the east and west.
Fig. 5(a) Surveyor’s compass Fig. 5(b) Compass box
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9. PRISMATIC COMPASS: Figure 7 shows the cross-section of a typical prismatic compass [see
plate 13.1 also]. A magnetic needle of broad form (1) is balanced on a hard and pointed steel
pivot (2). The top of the pointed pivot is protected with agate cap (3). An aluminium graduated
disk (4) is fixed to the top of the needle. The graduations are from zero to 360° in clockwise
direction when read from top. The direction of north is treated as zero degrees, east as 90°, south
as 180° and west as 270°. However, while taking the readings observations are at the other end
of line of sight. Hence, the readings are shifted by 180° and graduations are marked as shown in
Fig. 6. The graduations are marked inverted because they are read through a prism.
Fig. 6 Graduation marking
The line of sight consists of object unit and the reading unit. Object unit consists of a slit metal
frame (5) hinged to the box. In the centre the slit is provided with a horse hair or a fine wire or
thread (6). The metal frame is provided with a hinged mirror (7), which can be placed upward or
downward on the frame. It can be slided along the frame. The mirror can be adjusted to view
objects too high or too low from the position of compass. Reading unit is provided at
diametrically opposite edge. It consists of a prism (8) with a sighting eye vane (9). The prism
magnifies the readings on the graduation disk just below it. For focussing, the prism is lowered or
raised on the frame carrying it and then fixed with the stud (10). Dark sunglasses (11) provided
near the line of sight can be interposed if the object to be sighted is bright (e.g., sun).
The bottom of the box (12) which is about 85 mm to 110 mm supports the pivot of needle firmly
at its centre. The object vane and the prism are supported on the sides of the box. The box is
provided with a glass (13) lid which protects the graduation disc at the same time permit the
direct reading from the top. When the object vane is folded on the glass top it presses a lifting pin
(14) which activates lifting lever (15) lifts the needle off the pivot. Thus, it prevents undue wear
of pivot point. While taking reading, if graduation disc vibrates, it can be dampened with a spring
(16). For pressing spring a knob or brake pin (17) is provided on the box. When not in use prism
can be folded over the edge of the box. The box is provided with a lid to close it when the
compass is not in use. The box is provided with a socket to fit it on the top of a tripod.
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Fig. 7 Prismatic compass
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HANDOUT # 2 Course instructor: Tariq Aziz
Engineering Surveying-I Batch: 2017
FE Civil and FE Construction


iii. Radians
1 rad = 57.3o
determining angles


the right.

Page 1 of 6
Handout # 2 CE-103 Batch: 2017



OD, 330°.

WCB OA = 40°
WCB OB = 120°
WCB OC = 195°
WCB OD = 330°
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AB 44°30’ 226°30’
BC 124°30’ 303°15’
CD 181°00’ 1°00’
DA 289°30’ 108°45’

LM 66°30’ 246°30’
MN 142°00’ 320°00’
NO 255°30’ 79°00’
OL 357°00’ 175°30’
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Page 5 of 6
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HANDOUT # 2 Course instructor: Tariq Aziz
Engineering Surveying-I Batch: 2017
FE Civil and FE Construction


iii. Radians
1 rad = 57.3o
determining angles


the right.

Page 1 of 6



OD, 330°.

WCB OA = 40°
WCB OB = 120°
WCB OC = 195°
WCB OD = 330°
Page 2 of 6
Page 3 of 6
AB 44°30’ 226°30’
BC 124°30’ 303°15’
CD 181°00’ 1°00’
DA 289°30’ 108°45’

LM 66°30’ 246°30’
MN 142°00’ 320°00’
NO 255°30’ 79°00’
OL 357°00’ 175°30’
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Handout # 3 Course Instructor: Tariq Aziz
FE Civil & Construction Batch: 2017
LEVELLING
1. INTRODUCTION: Levelling is the general term applied to any of the various processes by
which elevations of points or differences in elevation are determined. It is a vital operation in
producing necessary data for mapping, engineering design, and construction.
Levelling results are used to:

i. design highways, railroads, canals, sewers, water supply systems, and other facilities
having grade lines that best conform to existing topography;
ii. lay out construction projects according to planned elevations;
iii. calculate volumes of earthwork and other materials;
iv. investigate drainage characteristics of an area;
v. develop maps showing general ground configurations;
vi. Study earth subsidence and crustal motion.
2. BASIC DEFINITIONS: Basic terms in levelling are defined here, some of which are illustrated
in Figure 1.
2.1 Vertical line: A line that follows the local direction of gravity as indicated by a plumb line.
2.2 Level surface: A curved surface that at every point is perpendicular to the local plumb line
(the direction in which gravity acts). Level surfaces are approximately spheroidal in shape. A
body of still water is the closest example of a level surface.
2.3 Level line: A line in a level surface—therefore, a curved line.
2.4 Horizontal plane: A plane perpendicular to the local direction of gravity. In plane
surveying, it is a plane perpendicular to the local vertical line.
2.5 Horizontal line: A line in a horizontal plane. In plane surveying, it is a line perpendicular to
the local vertical.
2.6 Datum: A datum is any reference surface to which the elevations of points are referred. The
most commonly used datum is that of mean sea level (MSL).
2.7 Elevation: An elevation is a vertical distance above or below a reference datum. In

surveying, the reference datum that is universally employed is mean sea level (MSL).
Fig. 1 Levelling concept
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Handout # 3 LEVELLING FE Civil & Construction (Spring 2018)
2.8 Bench mark: In surveying bench mark is a point of known elevation. In general it is a point
whose all dimensions (x, y, z) are known.
2.9 Back sight (B.S): It is the first sight taken after the setting up of the instrument. Initially it is
usually made to some form of bench mark.
2.10 Fore sight (F.S): It is the last sight taken before moving the instrument.
2.11 Intermediate sight (I.S): It is any other sight taken except back sight and fore sight.
2.12 Height of instrument (H.I): It is the elevation of the line of sight through the level.
3. CLASSIFICATION OF LEVELLING:
3.1 Differential levelling: Differential levelling is used to determine differences in elevation

between points (that are some distance from each other) by using a surveyors’ level and a
graduated measuring rod.
3.2 Profile levelling: It is the operation in which the object is to determine the elevation of
points at known distances apart along a given line so as to obtain accurate outline of the surface
of the ground. This is also known is as longitudinal levelling.
3.3 Reciprocal levelling: It is the method of levelling in which the difference in elevation
between two points is accurately determined by two sets of observations, when it is not
possible to set up the level midway between two points.
3.4 Trigonometric levelling: It is the process of levelling in which the elevations of points are
computed from the vertical angle and horizontal or slope distance measured in the field.
3.5 Bench mark levelling: BM levelling is the type of levelling employed when a system of BMs
is to be established or when an existing system of BMs is to be extended or densified. Perhaps a
BM is required in a new location, or perhaps an existing BM has been destroyed and a suitable
replacement is required. BM levelling is typified by the relatively high level of precision
specified, both for the instrumentation and for the technique itself. It is also known as vertical
control surveys
3.5 Barometric levelling: This method depends on the principle that atmospheric pressure
depends upon the elevation of place. Barometer is used to measure the atmospheric pressure
and hence elevation is computed. However it is not accurate method since the atmospheric
pressure depends upon season and temperature also. It may be used in exploratory surveys.
3.6 Hypsometry: This is based on the principle that boiling point of water decreases with the
elevation of the place. Hence the elevation difference between two points may be found by
noting the difference in boiling point of water in the two places. This method is also useful only
for exploratory survey.
4. THEORY OF DIFFERENTIAL LEVELLING: In this most commonly employed method, a

surveyor’s level is used to read measuring staff held on fixed points. The surveyors’ level
consists of a cross hair–equipped telescope and an attached spirit level, both of which are
mounted on a tripod. The surveyor can sight through the levelled telescope to a measuring staff
graduated in feet or meters and determine a measurement reading at the point where the cross
hair intersects the measuring staff.
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The basic procedure is illustrated in Figure 2. An instrument is set up between BM Rock and
point X. Assume the elevation of BM Rock is known to be 820.00 ft. After levelling the
instrument, a back sight taken on a rod held on the BM gives a reading of 8.42 ft. The B.S is used
to compute the height of instrument (HI), Direction of the sight—whether forward, backward,
or sideways—is not important. Adding the B.S 8.42 ft to the elevation of BM Rock, 820.00, gives
an HI of 828.42 ft.
If the telescope is then turned to bring into view a rod held on point X a foresight (FS) is
obtained. In this example, it is 1.20 ft. Subtracting the F.S 1.20 ft, from the HI, 828.42 ft, gives the
elevation of point X as 827.22 ft.
Fig. 2 Basic concept of differential levelling
Differential levelling theory and applications can thus be expressed by two equations, which are
repeated over and over:
HI = RLBM + BS
RLX = HI – X
Where,
HI = Height of Instrument
RLBM = Reduced level (elevation) of Bench Mark
BS = Back Sight
RLX = Reduced level of any point ‘X’
X = Staff reading at point ‘X’ (Can be a Fore Sight ‘FS’ or Intermediate Sight ‘IS’)
4.1 Calculations of reduced level using Height of Instrument (HI) method: In reducing the
levels for various points by the height of instrument method, the height of instrument (H.I.) for
the each section highlighted by different shade is determined by adding the elevation of the
point to the back sight reading taken at that point. The H.I. remains unchanged for all the staff
readings taken within that section and therefore, the levels of all the points lying in that section
are reduced by subtracting the corresponding staff readings, i.e., I.S. or F.S., from the H.I. of that
section.
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Arithmetic check: The arithmetic involved in reduction of the levels is used as check on
the computations. The following rules are used in the HI method of reduction of levels.
B.S. – F.S. = Last R.L. – First R.L
Q1: Find the elevations at all points using HI method. Also apply arithmetic check.
Station BS (ft) IS (ft) FS (ft) HI (ft) RL (ft) Remarks
A 4.20 BM = 100.00 ft
4.30
B 4.33 4.36
4.32
4.25
C 4.22 4.93
4.24
4.2 Calculations of reduced level using Rise and fall method: In the rise and fall method, the
rises and the falls are found out for the points lying within each section. Adding or subtracting
the rise or fall to or from the reduced level of the backward station obtains the level for a
forward station. In Table below, r and f indicate the rise and the fall, respectively, assumed
between the consecutive points.
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Arithmetic check: The arithmetic involved in reduction of the levels is used as

check on the computations. The following rules are used in the Rise & Fall method of
reduction of levels.
B.S. – F.S. = Rise – Fall = Last R.L. – First R.L
Q2: Find the elevations at all points using rise and fall method. Also apply arithmetic check.
Station BS (ft) IS (ft) FS (ft) Rise (ft) Fall (ft) RL (ft) Remarks
A 4.20 BM = 100.00 ft
4.30
B 4.33 4.36
4.32
4.25
C 4.22 4.93
4.24
Q3: The following consecutive readings were taken using an automatic level. The terrain was
such that the surveyor had to shift the instrument after 4th and 8th sight. The first sight was
taken at a BM having reduced level of 100m. The sights were:
0.894, 1.643, 2.896, 3.016, 0.954, 0.692, 0.582, 0.251, 0.996, 2.135
Calculate RL of each point using HI method & rise and fall method and perform necessary check.
4.3 Effect of curvature and refraction in levelling: From the definitions of a level surface and
a horizontal line, it is evident that the horizontal plane departs from a level surface because of
curvature of the Earth. In Figure 3(a), the deviation DB from a horizontal line through point A is
expressed approximately by the formulae:
Where,
& is the departure of a level surface from a horizontal line in feet or in meters,
M is the distance AB in miles,
F is the distance in thousands of feet, and
K is the distance in kilometres.
Fig. 3(a) Curvature and refraction Fig. 3(b) Refraction
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Since points A and B are on a level line, they have the same elevation. If a graduated rod was
held vertically at B and a reading was taken on it by means of a telescope with its line of sight
AD horizontal, the Earth’s curvature would cause the reading to be read too high by length BD.
Light rays passing through the Earth’s atmosphere are bent or refracted toward the Earth’s
surface, as shown in Figure 3(b). Thus a theoretically horizontal line of sight, like AH in Figure
3(a), is bent to the curved form AR. Hence, the reading on a rod held at R is diminished by length
RH.
Displacement resulting from refraction is variable. It depends on atmospheric conditions, length

of line, and the angle a sight line makes with the vertical. For a horizontal sight, refraction Rf in
feet or Rm in meters is expressed approximately by the formulae:
This is about one seventh the effect of curvature of the Earth, but in the opposite direction. The
combined effect of curvature and refraction, h in Figure 3(a), is approximately:
Where,
hf is in feet, and
hm is in metre.
Q4: Find the reduced level of all points given that;

Station Distance(m) BS IS FS HI RL Correc- RLcorrected Remarks
(m) (m) (m) Tion
A 0.894 100.000 BM
600 1.643
1200 2.896
B 1800 0.954 3.016
600 0.692
1200 0.585
C 1800 1.552 0.251
600 0.996
1200 2.135
5. TRIGNOMETRIC LEVELLING: The difference in elevation between two points can be

determined by measuring (1) the inclined or horizontal distance between them and (2) the
zenith angle or the altitude angle to one point from the other. (Zenith and altitude angles are
measured in vertical planes. Zenith angles are observed downward from vertical, and altitude
angles are observed up or down from horizontal.) Thus, in Figure 4, if slope distance S and
zenith angle ‘Z’ or altitude angle ‘α’ between C and D are observed, then V, the elevation
difference between C and D, is;
V = S x Cos z OR V = S x Sin α
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Fig. 4 Trigonometric levelling
Alternatively, if horizontal distance H between C and D is measured, then V is;
V = H x Cot z OR V = H x tan α
The difference in elevation (Δ elev) between points A and B in Figure 4 is given by;
Δ elev. = hi + V- r
Q5: If the zenith angle measured is 42°, slope distance measured is 275.62ft to point D, height of
instrument is 3.45ft from point A and staff reading is 1.26ft. What is the difference of elevation
between point A and B?
6. RECIPROCAL LEVELLING: Sometimes in levelling across topographic features such as rivers,

lakes, and canyons, it is difficult or impossible to keep fore and back sights short and equal.
Reciprocal levelling may be utilized at such locations.
As shown in Figure 5, a level is set up on one side of a river at X, near A, and rod readings are
taken on points A and B. Since XB is very long, several readings are taken for averaging. Reading,
turning the levelling screws to throw the instrument out of level, re-levelling, and reading again,
does this. The process is repeated two, three, four, or more times. Then the instrument is moved
close to Y and the same procedure followed.
The two differences in elevation between A and B, determined with an instrument first at X and
then at Y, will not agree normally because of curvature, refraction, and personal and
instrumental errors. However, in the procedure just outlined, the long fore-sight from X to B is
balanced by the long back-sight from Y to A. Thus the average of the two elevation differences
cancels the effects of curvature, refraction, and instrumental errors, so the result is accepted as
the correct value if the precision of the two differences appears satisfactory. Delays at X and Y
should be minimized because refraction varies with changing atmospheric conditions.
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If the two points between which the difference of level is required to be determined are A and B
then in reciprocal levelling, the first set of staff readings (a1 and b1) is taken by placing the staff
on A and B, and instrument at X. The second set of readings (a2 and b2) is taken again on A and B
by placing the instrument at Y. The difference of level between A and B is given by:
( ) ( )
Fig. 5 Reciprocal levelling
and the combine error is given by:

( ) ( )
Where,
e = Combined error due to collimation, earth’s curvature and atmospheric refraction
Q6: While conducting reciprocal survey, following readings were obtained between A and B:
Instrument Staff reading on

at A B
X 1.486 1.725
Y 1.190 1.415
If the reduced level of B is 55.18 m above the datum, what is the reduced level of A?
Q7 : Reciprocal leveling gives the following readings in meters from a set up near A: on A,
2.558; on B, 1.883, 1.886, and 1.885. At the setup near B: on B, 1.555; on A, 2.228, 2.226,
and 2.229. The elevation of A is 158.618 m?
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7. PROFILE LEVELLING: The profile of the route is a side view or elevation. Before engineers
can properly design linear facilities such as highways, railroads, transmission lines, aqueducts,
canals, sewers, and water mains, they need accurate information about the topography along
the proposed routes. Profile levelling, which yields elevations at definite points along a
reference line, provides the needed data. Profile levelling is same as differential levelling but
here the distance is also considered. Elevations are computed at distance interval of 20, 30 or 40
m or wherever sudden change of slope occurs. When these elevations are plotted, a profile of
that area is generated. Figure 6 shows the typical profile levelling.
Fig. 6 Example of profile levelling
Q8: Find the reduced level of all survey points, given in table below. Also find the slope between
first and last sight. (This is a practice problem)
Station Chainage BS IS FS HI (m) RL (m) Remarks
A - 2.868 164.141 161.273 BM 460
0+00 2.060
0+06 1.170
0+20 1.630
0+40 1.620
0+60 1.410
0+80 1.010
B 0+90 1.977 0.982 TP1
1+00 1.730
1+20 1.700
1+30 1.890
1+40 1.670
1+60 1.600
1+80 1.310
1+91 1.930
2+00 0.640
2+15 0.540
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8. CONTOURS: Contours are lines drawn on a plan that connect points having the same
elevation. The vertical distance between contour lines is called the contour interval. Depending
on the accuracy required, they may be plotted at 0.1-m to 0.5-m intervals in flat terrain and 1-m
to 10-m intervals in undulating terrain. The interval chosen depends on:
(1) The type of project involved;
(2) The type of terrain, flat or undulating
(3) The cost, for the smaller the interval the greater the amount of field data
required, resulting in greater expense.
8.1 Characteristics of contours: Although each contour line in nature has a unique shape, all
contours adhere to a set of general characteristics. Important ones, fundamental to their proper
field location and correct plotting, are listed.
1. Contour lines must close on themselves, either on or off a map. They cannot dead end.
2. Contours are perpendicular to the direction of maximum slope.
3. The slope between adjacent contour lines is assumed to be uniform. (Thus, it is necessary that
breaks (changes) in grade be located in topographic surveys.)
4. The distance between contours indicates the steepness of a slope. Wide separation denotes
gentle slopes; close spacing, steep slopes; even and parallel spacing, uniform slope.
5. Irregular contours signify rough, rugged country. Smooth lines imply more uniformly rolling
terrain.
6. Concentric closed contours that increase in elevation represent hills. A contour forming a
closed loop around lower ground is called a depression contour (Spot elevations and
hachures inside the lowest contour and pointing to the bottom of a hole or sink with no
outlet make map reading easier.)
7. Contours of different elevations never meet except on a vertical surface such as a wall, cliff, or
natural bridge. They cross only in the rare case of a cave or overhanging shelf. Knife-
edge conditions are never found in natural formations.
8. A contour cannot branch into two contours of the same elevation.
9. Contour lines crossing a stream point upstream and form V’s; they point down the ridge and
form U’s when crossing a ridge crest.
10. Contour lines go in pairs up valleys and along the sides of ridge tops.
11. Cuts and fills for earth dams, levees, highways, railroads, canals, etc., produce straight or
geometrically curved contour lines with uniform, or uniformly graduated spacing.
Contours cross sloping or crowned streets in typical V- or U-shaped lines.
8.2 Uses of contours: Contour maps are very useful since they provide valuable information
about the terrain. Some of the uses are as follows:
(1) Construct longitudinal sections and cross-sections for initial investigation.
(2) Compute volumes.
(3) Construct route lines of constant gradient.
(4) Delineate the limits of constructed dams, road, railways, tunnels, etc.
(5) Delineate and measure drainage areas.
8.3 Locating contours: There are two methods of locating contours;

8.3.1 Direct method: In the direct method, the contour to be plotted is actually traced
on the ground. Points which happen to fall on a desired contour are only surveyed,
plotted and finally joined to obtain the particular contour. This method is slow and
tedious and thus used for large scale maps, small contour interval and at high degree of
precision.
8.3.2 Indirect method: In this method, the spot levels of selected guide points are taken
with a level and their reduced levels are computed. The horizontal positions of these
Page 10 of 11
points are measured or computed and the points are plotted on the plan. The contours
are then drawn by a process called interpolation of contours from the levels of the guide
points. The following are the indirect methods that are commonly used for locating
contours;
a. Grid method
b. Radial line method
Page 11 of 11
HAND OUT # 3 Course Instructor: Shoaib Ahmed
Engineering Surveying-I Batch: 17-18
MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL DISTANCES
1. INTRODUCTION: Measuring the horizontal distance between two points on the surface of
earth is one of the most fundamental surveying operations. It is also one of the most basic
engineering measurements. It can be measured in millimetres, centimetres, metres, and
kilometres in SI unit system and in inches, foot, yard and mile in FPS unit system. The
conversion factors are:
1 m = 100 cm 1 km = 1000 m 1 ft = 12 in
1 m = 3.281 ft 1 km = 0.62 miles 1 yard = 3 ft
1 mile = 5280 ft 1 nautical mile = 1.852 km 1 in = 2.54 cm
2. TYPES OF MEASUREMENTS: According to the method employed to find the distances, there
are three types of measurements. 1. Direct, 2. Indirect, and 3. Electronic.
3. METHODS OF DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS:
3.1 Pacing: It is the useful method for approximate measure. A person can determine the value
of his average pace by counting the paces necessary for him to walk a distance which has
previously been measured more precisely (for example, with a steel tape). For most people
pacing is done most satisfactorily, when taking natural steps. Some others like to try to take
paces of certain lengths (e.g. 1 m), but this method is tiring for long distances and usually gives
results of lower precision for short or long distances. As horizontal distances are needed, some
adjustments should be made when pacing is done on sloping ground. With a little practice a
person can pace distances with a precision of roughly 1/50 to 1/100 depending on the ground
conditions.
3.2 Odometer: An odometer converts the number of revolutions of a wheel of a known

circumference to a distance. This has advantage in preliminary surveys where precise distances
are not necessary. Odometer distances should be converted to horizontal distance when the
slope of the ground is steep. With odometers, an accuracy of approximately 1/200 of the
distance is reasonable. Distance can be found by the following formula:
Distance = (number of revolutions of the wheel) x (circumference of the wheel)
Q1: What is the distance measured in feet, if revolution of wheel counted are 655.5 and the
radius of the wheel is 10 inches? (3432.2ft)
3.3 Tacheometry: Techniques that indirectly provide required measurements are called
tacheometry. Tacheometry (stadia in US) is a surveying method used to determine the
horizontal distance to, and elevation of, a point. In this, distance is measured not directly but
indirectly with the help of an optical instrument called tacheometer. A theodolite with three
cross-hairs can be used with the intercept on a levelling staff between the top and bottom cross-
hairs multiplied by a constant giving the horizontal distance. An accuracy of 1/500 of the
distance is achieved with reasonable care.
Page 1
HAND OUT # 1 CE-103 Batch: 2013-14
3.4 Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM): EDM instrument function by sending a light
wave or microwave along the path to be measured and then measuring the phase difference
between the transmitted and received signals (microwave), or measuring the noted phase
difference when reflecting the light wave back to its source.
3.5 Chain: Chain is one of the most common instruments for measuring distances (Rarely used
in Pakistan). It has medium precision level. The chains are composed of 100 pieces of steel or
iron wire called links. The end of each link are bent into a loop and connected together by
means of three oval rings. The end of the chain is provided with a brass handle. The outside of
the handle is the zero point or end of the chain, and the length of the chain is measured from the
outside of the one handle to the outside of the other. The length of a link is the distance between
the centres of the two consecutive middle rings. To facilitate reading of the chain, every tenth
link from each end of the chain is marked by a brass tag, also called teller, tally or tablet shown
in Fig. 1.
Fig.1. Chain and brass tags
There are various kinds of chains used for measurement.
3.5.1 Gunter’s Chain: The Gunter’s (or surveyor’s) chain is 22 yards or 66 ft long and it is
divided into 100 links, each of 0.66 ft (7.92 inches) long. It is very convenient because of its
relation to the furlong, mile for length and acre for area.
1 Gunter’s chain = 22 yards 10 Gunter’s chains = 1 furlong

80 Gunter’s chains= 8 furlong = 1 mile
10 sq. Gunter’s chains = 1 acre
3.5.2 Engineer’s chain: The engineer’s chain is 100 ft long and is divided into 100 links, each 1
foot in length. It is more convenient than the Gunter’s chain in levelling operations, since the
levelling staff is graduated in feet. When long lines are to be measured, it is more accurate than
the Gunter’s chain because of its greater length.
3.5.3 Metre chain: Countries in which the meter is the unit of length, chains of 10, 20 and 25
metres are commonly used. The 20 metres chain which is in most common use is divided into
links; each of 2 decimetre in length, and the brass tags is attached at every two metres from
each end.
100 links = 20 m 1 link = 0.2 m
3.6 Tapes: Tapes come in a variety of lengths and materials. For engineering work the lengths
are generally 10 m, 30 m, 50 m and 100 m.
For general use, linen or glass fibre tapes may be used. The linen tapes are made from high-
class linen, combined with metal fibres to increase their strength. These are graduated in 5
millimetres.
Page 2
More precise versions of the above tapes are made of steel and graduated in millimetres. For
high-accuracy work, steel bands mounted in an open frame are used. They are standardized so
that they measure their nominal length when the temperature is 20°C and the applied tension
between 50 N to 80 N. This information is clearly printed on the zero end of the tape.
For the very highest calibre of work, invar tapes made from 35% nickel and 65% steel are
available. The singular advantage of such tapes is that they have a negligible coefficient of
expansion compared with steel, and hence temperature variations are not critical.
3.6.1 Taping accessories: There are various accessories which are used for taping except
tapes.
3.6.1.1 Plumb bob: A plumb-bob or a plummet is a weight, usually with a pointed tip on the
bottom that is suspended from a string and used as a vertical reference line. It is shown in fig. 3
(d).
3.6.1.2 Ranging rods: Ranging rods or range poles or lining rods made of wood, steel, or
aluminium are about 1 in. thick and 6 to 10 ft long. They are round or hexagonal in cross section
and marked with alternate 1-ft long red and white (or black and white) bands that can be used
for rough measurements [Fig. 3(e)]. The main utility of range poles is to mark the line being
measured so that the tape’s alignment can be maintained.
3.6.1.3 Taping pins: Taping pins or Chaining pins are used to mark tape lengths. Most taping
pins are made of steel wire, sharply pointed at one end, have a round loop at the other end, and
are painted with alternate red and white bands [fig. 3(c)].
Page 3
Fig.3 (a) Surveyor’s tape (b) cloth or metallic tape (c) Taping pins (d) plumb bobs (e) ranging
rods
3.7 Errors in Taping/ Taping corrections: There are two types of errors, 1) Systematic errors
and 2) Random errors.
3.7.1 Systematic errors: Systematic errors in experimental observations usually come from
the measuring instruments. This can be due to erroneous length, temperature, tension or pull,
sag, slope and wrong alignment.
3.7.1.1 Incorrect length of tape: An error, caused by incorrect length of a tape, occurs each
time the tape is used. If the true length, known by standardization, is not exactly equal to its
nominal value recorded for every full length, the correction can be determined as:
𝐷𝐿 = 𝐷′𝐿′
Where,
D = True distance (m or ft),
L = True length of tape used (m or ft),
D’ = Erroneous or incorrect distance measured (m or ft),
L’ = Incorrect length of tape used (m or ft).
OR the correction in length is given by:

Cl = D-D’
Where,
Cl= Correction in total length due to use of erroneous tape.
NOTE: “Too short” means that the tape measures more than the true length, therefore we have
to subtract the correction in length ‘Cl’ from erroneous length, and
“Too long” means that the tape measures lesser than the true length, therefore we have to add
the correction in length ‘Cl’ to erroneous length.
Q2: We want to lay off a distance of 50.000 metres with a 30 m tape that is 0.009 m too short.
What tape reading should be used? (Ans. 50.015 m)
Page 4
Q3: The distance between two stations were measured with a 20 m chain and found to be 1000
m. The same distance was measured from 30 m chain and found to be 996.17 m. If a 20 m chain
was 50mm too short. What was the error in 30 m chain? (Ans: 0.04m too long)
3.7.1.2 Temperature correction: The correction applied to the length of the tape due to
change in temperature ‘Ct’ is given by,
Ct = L(T – T0)
Where:
 = is the coefficient of linear expansion; for a steel tape ( = 1.16 x 10-5 /°C or 6.45 x 10-6/°F)
L = is the length of the tape or length of line measured
T = is the observed temperature of the tape at the time of measurement
To = is the temperature at which the tape was standardized.
The resulting sign of ‘Ct’ will be either positive or negative and is added algebraically to the
length measured to obtain the correct length.
Q4: If a distance of 412.621 m is measured (recorded) when the tape of 50 m is used at

temperature 39.60C, if  = 1.16 x 10-5 /°C at 20 °C. What is the true length? (Ans: 412.715m)
(see lecture notes for solution)
3.7.1.3 Pull correction: If the tension or pull is greater or less than that for which the tape is
verified, the tape will be elongated or shortened accordingly. The correction for variation in
tension in a steel tape is given by the formula,
(𝑃 − 𝑃𝑜 )
𝐶𝑝 = 𝐿
𝐴𝐸
Where:
Cp = correction per distance L, ft or m
P = applied tension,
P0 = tension for which the tape is standardized,
L = length, ft or m
A = cross-sectional area, in2 or cm2
E = elastic modulus of the steel,
The modulus of elasticity is taken as 28 to 10 x 107 lb/in2 or 2.1 x 106 kg/cm2.

The cross-sectional area of the tape can be computed from the weight and dimensions,
because steel weighs approximately 490 lb/ft3 or 7.85 x 10-3 kg/cm3.
Light and heavy 30-m tapes have respective cross-sectional areas of about 0.019 and
0.058 cm2. Light (1-lb) and heavy (3-lb) 100-ft tapes have cross-sectional areas of
approximately 0.003 and 0.009 in2, respectively.
Q5: A base line was measured having length of 812.701 m. The tension applied is 110 N. The
tape was standardized as 30 m and a tension of 70 N. The cross-sectional area of tape is 3 mm2,
E = 210 x 103 N/mm2 (210 kN/mm2). Find the actual length? (812.753m)
3.7.1.4 Correction for sag: When the tape sags between the points of support, it takes the form
of a catenary. The correction to be applied is the difference in length between the arc and the
subtending chord. The correction then is given with sufficient precision for most purposes by
the formula using parabolic equation,
𝑤 2 𝐿3 𝑊 2𝐿
𝐶𝑠 = − 𝑂𝑅 𝐶𝑠 = −
24 𝑃2 24 𝑃2
Page 5
Where,
Cs = correction between points of support, ft or m
w = weight of the tape per ft or m, (lb/ft or kg/m),
W = total weight of tape between supports, lb or kg
L = distance between supports, ft or m
P = applied tension, lb or kg.
Fig. 4 Effect of sag
Q6: Calculate the horizontal length between two supports, approximately level, if the recorded
length is 450.24 ft, using 100 ft tape, the tape weighs 0.95 lb and the applied tension is 20 lb?
Q7: Find the horizontal distance, if the recorded distance is 550.27 ft, using 100 ft tape. Also the
tape weighs 0.90 lb and the applied tension is 18 lb?
3.7.1.5 Slope correction: If the difference in height of the two measuring heads is ‘d’, the slope
distance ‘L’ and the horizontal equivalent ‘H’, then by Pythagoras theorem:
𝐻 = √𝐿2 − 𝑑2
Alternatively if the vertical angle of the slope of the ground is “α” then,
H = L cos α
Fig. 5 Slope correction
Q8: The slope distance between two points is 78.22’ and the vertical angle is 1°20’. What is the
corresponding horizontal distance? (Ans: 78.20’)
Page 6
3.7.1.6 Correction for alignment: If the intermediate points are not in correct alignment with
ends of the line, a correction for alignment given below, is applied to the measured length (Fig.
6).
𝑑2
𝐶𝑎 =
2𝐿
Where,
Ca = correction due to wrong alignment,
d = the distance by which the other end of the tape is out of alignment,
L = Total length measured.
Fig. 6 Alignment correction
Q9: A 30 m steel tape measured 30.015 m when standardized under a 70 N pull at a

temperature of 20°C. The tape weighs 0.9 kg and has a cross-sectional area of 0.028 cm2. What is
the true length of recorded distance AB = 150m for the following conditions:
Average temperature in field is 12°C,
Applied tension is 100N,
Difference of elevation per 100m is 2.5m,
α = 1.15 x 10-5 °C-1, E = 2.1 x 107 N/cm2. (Ans: 149.973m)
3.7.2 Random errors: This is also known as human error. They are may be of the form:
 Plumbing
 Marking tape ends with tape fully supported
 Adding or dropping full tape length
 Adding a foot or decimetre
 Other points incorrectly taken as end mark on tape
 Reading numbers incorrectly
 Calling numbers incorrectly or not clearly
3.8 Field notes: One of the most important aspects of surveying is the taking of neat, legible and
complete field notes. The notes will be used to plot scale drawings of the area surveyed and also
to provide a permanent record of the survey proceedings. Modern surveys, employing
electronic data collectors, automatically store point-positioning angles, distances and attributes,
which are later transferred to computer. The field notes are entered in a book with stiff covers,
about 7.5 in. by 4.5 in., containing plain leaves, opening lengthwise, and secured with an elastic
band. Usually two red lines, about 5/8 in. apart, are ruled centrally down the middle of the page
to represent the survey line, and the notes are recorded up the page, as in looking forward along
the chain the next forward station. This method of upward booking should be characteristic of
all forms of line notes.
Page 7
Fig. 7 Example of field book
Page 8
1. INTRODUCTION: The fundamental network of points whose horizontal positions are accurately
known are called horizontal control. Traversing is most frequently employed method for
establishment of horizontal control points for surveys of limited extent or where the desired points
lie along a devious route.
2. TRAVERSE: A traverse consists of a series of straight lines connected successively at established

points, along the route of a survey. The points defining the ends of the traverse line are called
traverse stations or traverse points. Distances between traverse stations are known as traverse
side. At stations where a traverse side changes its direction, relative direction are measured with a
transit or theodolite.
Basically, there are two types of traverse;
2.1 Open Traverse: An open traverse originates from a point whose position may be known or
unknown but terminates to a point whose position is not known. In this type of traverse,
computational check is not possible to detect error or blunder in distances or directions. To
minimize error, repeated observations for measurements need to be taken.
In Figure 1 consider a traverse ABCDE that originates from the point A which may be unknown or
may be defined with reference to known point P lying on the line PQ of known azimuth, but it
terminates to an unknown point E. Thus, traverse ABCDE is an open traverse.
Figure 2a Close-loop traverse Figure 2b Open-looped closed traverse

2.2 Closed Traverse: When a traverse originates from a known position and also terminates to
known position then it is called a closed traverse. (If the origin and terminating points are the same
then it is called closed-loop traverse. This type of traverse permits an internal check on the
accuracy of angular measurements, provides an indication of the consistency of measuring
distances as well as angles. But detection of systematic errors in linear measurement or errors in
the orientation of the traverse is not possible. A closed traverse that originates from a known point
and terminates to another known point is the most reliable traverse. This type of traverse
henceforth called as open looped close traverse. It provides computational checks allowing
detection of systematic errors in both distance and direction and, therefore, preferred to all other
types of traverse.
2.2.1 Deflection Angle Traverse: In this method of traverse surveying, successive stations are
occupied and deflection angles are measured by a transit or theodolite. At each station, a back sight
is taken to the previous station with vernier A set at zero. The telescope is then reversed by
plunging it. A foresight to the next station is then taken by turning the instrument about the vertical
axis on its upper motion, and the deflection angle is observed. The angle is recorded as right R or
left L, according to whether the upper motion is turned clockwise or counter clockwise. Usually,
deflection angles are observed twice, once with the telescope in face left and the other in face right
condition.
To check the angular closure, azimuths are calculated from previously known azimuth of a line. The
unknown azimuth of a line is computed by adding the right deflection angle and subtracting the left
deflection angle with the forward azimuth of the previous line. Thus,
W.C.B. of a traverse line = Forward W.C.B. of the preceding line ± deflection angle.
Figure 3 Azimuth with deflection angle (a) to the left and (b) to the right
360° needs to be subtracted from computed W.C.B., if it is more than 360° and 360° needs to be
added, if the computed value is negative.
Q1: Find the azimuth of all sides of given traverse in figure 4?
Figure 4
Deflection angle Computed

Line azimuths from
Station Nature Value observed angles
AB 62°00’00”
BC B R(+) 73° 48’ 40”
CD C R(+) 120°15’20”
DE D L(-) 74°16’20”
EA E R(+) 141°42’40”
The error of closure in a traverse observation can be determined by two ways. These are either
based on the computed azimuth or on the observed deflection angles.
In the azimuth adjustment method, the computed azimuth of the closing line is compared with its
previously observed value. If both the values agrees each other, there is no error of closure
otherwise it exist. To remove the error, a correction equal in magnitude but opposite in nature to
the error of closure is to be distributed among the observed deflection angles.
In the deflection angle adjustment method, the algebraic sum of the deflection angles is being
computed taking the right deflection angles as positive and left deflection angles as negative. The
general relation to compute the error of closure by this method is as follows:
Forward azimuth of the first side of Forward azimuth of the last side of the traverse
traverse (at first station) + R - L = (at terminating station) + 360°
Where,
R = sum of the right deflection angles,
L = sum of the left deflection angles.
If the computed value differs from the previously observed values, an error of closure exists in the
measurements of traverse. To find adjusted azimuth of the sides of the traverse, first the deflection
angles get adjusted by applying correction equal to the amount of error of closure and then
adjusted azimuths are computed.
Q2: Determine the azimuth of the sides of the open looped close traverse (Figure 5) by azimuth
correction method?
Figure 5
Deflection angle Computed Adjusted/

Line azimuths from Correction corrected
Station Nature Value observed angles azimuths
PQ 47° 53’ 20” Prior observed 47° 53’ 20”
AB A R(+) 70° 21’ 40”
BC B L(-) 67° 48’ 40”
CD C R(+) 40° 15’ 20”
DE D R(+) 114° 46’ 0”
EF E L(-) 131° 58’ 0”
XY A L(-) 113° 36’ 20”

Computed
Given 319°55’20”
Angular error of closure
2.3 Departure and latitude

By definition;
• Latitude is the north/south rectangular component of a line (ΔN).To differentiate
direction, north is considered positive (+), and south is considered negative (-).
• Departure is the east/west rectangular component of a line (ΔE). To differentiate
direction, east is considered positive (+), and west is considered negative(-).
Figure 7 Departure and latitude
In equation form, the departure and latitude of a line are
Departure = L Sin α
Latitude = L Cos α
Where,
L = the horizontal length and the azimuth of the course.
α = Azimuth of the course/line
When working with azimuths, the plus/minus designation of the latitude and departure
is given directly by the appropriate trigonometric function.
2.3.1 Linear error of closure:
The linear error of closure is the net accumulation of the random errors associated with the
traverse measurements.
√∑ ∑
Where,
 lat = Error in latitude
 dep = Error in departure
E = Total Error or total correction
While, the bearing angle is given by,
Where,
Cdep = -  dep = Correction for departure
Clat = -  lat = Correction for latitude
2.3.2 Precision of the survey:

It is the ratio between the total linear error and the perimeter of the traverse. Mathematically,
Where,
E = Total linear misclosure,
P = The perimeter of the traverse.
1. INTRODUCTION: The fundamental network of points whose horizontal positions are accurately
known are called horizontal control. Traversing is most frequently employed method for
establishment of horizontal control points for surveys of limited extent or where the desired points
lie along a devious route.
2. TRAVERSE: A traverse consists of a series of straight lines connected successively at established

points, along the route of a survey. The points defining the ends of the traverse line are called
traverse stations or traverse points. Distances between traverse stations are known as traverse
side. At stations where a traverse side changes its direction, relative direction are measured with a
transit or theodolite.
Basically, there are two types of traverse;
2.1 Open Traverse: An open traverse originates from a point whose position may be known or
unknown but terminates to a point whose position is not known. In this type of traverse,
computational check is not possible to detect error or blunder in distances or directions. To
minimize error, repeated observations for measurements need to be taken.
In Figure 1 consider a traverse ABCDE that originates from the point A which may be unknown or
may be defined with reference to known point P lying on the line PQ of known azimuth, but it
terminates to an unknown point E. Thus, traverse ABCDE is an open traverse.
Figure 2a Close-loop traverse Figure 2b Open-looped closed traverse

2.2 Closed Traverse: When a traverse originates from a known position and also terminates to
known position then it is called a closed traverse. (If the origin and terminating points are the same
then it is called closed-loop traverse. This type of traverse permits an internal check on the
accuracy of angular measurements, provides an indication of the consistency of measuring
distances as well as angles. But detection of systematic errors in linear measurement or errors in
the orientation of the traverse is not possible. A closed traverse that originates from a known point
and terminates to another known point is the most reliable traverse. This type of traverse
henceforth called as open looped close traverse. It provides computational checks allowing
detection of systematic errors in both distance and direction and, therefore, preferred to all other
types of traverse.
2.2.1 Deflection Angle Traverse: In this method of traverse surveying, successive stations are
occupied and deflection angles are measured by a transit or theodolite. At each station, a back sight
is taken to the previous station with vernier A set at zero. The telescope is then reversed by
plunging it. A foresight to the next station is then taken by turning the instrument about the vertical
axis on its upper motion, and the deflection angle is observed. The angle is recorded as right R or
left L, according to whether the upper motion is turned clockwise or counter clockwise. Usually,
deflection angles are observed twice, once with the telescope in face left and the other in face right
condition.
To check the angular closure, azimuths are calculated from previously known azimuth of a line. The
unknown azimuth of a line is computed by adding the right deflection angle and subtracting the left
deflection angle with the forward azimuth of the previous line. Thus,
W.C.B. of a traverse line = Forward W.C.B. of the preceding line ± deflection angle.
Figure 3 Azimuth with deflection angle (a) to the left and (b) to the right
360° needs to be subtracted from computed W.C.B., if it is more than 360° and 360° needs to be
added, if the computed value is negative.
Q1: Find the azimuth of all sides of given traverse in figure 4?
Figure 4
Deflection angle Computed

Line azimuths from
Station Nature Value observed angles
AB 62°00’00”
BC B R(+) 73° 48’ 40”
CD C R(+) 120°15’20”
DE D L(-) 74°16’20”
EA E R(+) 141°42’40”
The error of closure in a traverse observation can be determined by two ways. These are either
based on the computed azimuth or on the observed deflection angles.
In the azimuth adjustment method, the computed azimuth of the closing line is compared with its
previously observed value. If both the values agrees each other, there is no error of closure
otherwise it exist. To remove the error, a correction equal in magnitude but opposite in nature to
the error of closure is to be distributed among the observed deflection angles.
In the deflection angle adjustment method, the algebraic sum of the deflection angles is being
computed taking the right deflection angles as positive and left deflection angles as negative. The
general relation to compute the error of closure by this method is as follows:
Forward azimuth of the first side of Forward azimuth of the last side of the traverse
traverse (at first station) + R - L = (at terminating station) + 360°
Where,
R = sum of the right deflection angles,
L = sum of the left deflection angles.
If the computed value differs from the previously observed values, an error of closure exists in the
measurements of traverse. To find adjusted azimuth of the sides of the traverse, first the deflection
angles get adjusted by applying correction equal to the amount of error of closure and then
adjusted azimuths are computed.
Q2: Determine the azimuth of the sides of the open looped close traverse (Figure 5) by azimuth
correction method?
Figure 5
Deflection angle Computed Adjusted/

Line azimuths from Correction corrected
Station Nature Value observed angles azimuths
PQ 47° 53’ 20” Prior observed 47° 53’ 20”
AB A R(+) 70° 21’ 40”
BC B L(-) 67° 48’ 40”
CD C R(+) 40° 15’ 20”
DE D R(+) 114° 46’ 0”
EF E L(-) 131° 58’ 0”
XY A L(-) 113° 36’ 20”

Computed
Given 319°55’20”
Angular error of closure
2.3 Departure and latitude

By definition;
• Latitude is the north/south rectangular component of a line (ΔN).To differentiate
direction, north is considered positive (+), and south is considered negative (-).
• Departure is the east/west rectangular component of a line (ΔE). To differentiate
direction, east is considered positive (+), and west is considered negative(-).
Figure 7 Departure and latitude
In equation form, the departure and latitude of a line are
Departure = L Sin α
Latitude = L Cos α
Where,
L = the horizontal length and the azimuth of the course.
α = Azimuth of the course/line
When working with azimuths, the plus/minus designation of the latitude and departure
is given directly by the appropriate trigonometric function.
2.3.1 Linear error of closure:
The linear error of closure is the net accumulation of the random errors associated with the
traverse measurements.
√∑ ∑
Where,
 lat = Error in latitude
 dep = Error in departure
E = Total Error or total correction
While, the bearing angle is given by,
Where,
Cdep = -  dep = Correction for departure
Clat = -  lat = Correction for latitude
2.3.2 Precision of the survey:

It is the ratio between the total linear error and the perimeter of the traverse. Mathematically,
Where,
E = Total linear misclosure,
P = The perimeter of the traverse.

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Engineering Surveying-I Course instructor: Shoaib Ahmed

ANGLES AND DIRECTIONS

1. INTRODUCTION: Determining the locations of points and orientations of lines frequently

UNITS: Angular distance have units of:

2. KINDS OF HORIZONTAL ANGLES: The kinds of horizontal angles most commonly

2.2 Angles to the right: Angles to the right are

Angles to the left, turned counterclockwise from the

plus, and counterclockwise ones minus, as shown in the figure.

Fig. 2(b) Deflection angles

4. AZIMUTHS: Azimuths are horizontal angles observed

A line’s forward direction can be given by its forward

Fig. 4(c) Understanding forward and back bearing

geodetic azimuth = magnetic azimuth ± magnetic declination

Q6: Apply the correction for local attraction:

Fig. 5(a) Surveyor’s compass Fig. 5(b) Compass box

Fig. 6 Graduation marking

Fig. 7 Prismatic compass

ANGLES AND DIRECTIONS

1. INTRODUCTION: Determining the locations of points and orientations of lines frequently

UNITS: Angular distance have units of:

2. KINDS OF HORIZONTAL ANGLES: The kinds of horizontal angles most commonly

2.2 Angles to the right: Angles to the right are

Angles to the left, turned counterclockwise from the

plus, and counterclockwise ones minus, as shown in the figure.

Fig. 2(b) Deflection angles

4. AZIMUTHS: Azimuths are horizontal angles observed

A line’s forward direction can be given by its forward

Fig. 4(c) Understanding forward and back bearing

geodetic azimuth = magnetic azimuth ± magnetic declination

Q6: Apply the correction for local attraction:

Fig. 5(a) Surveyor’s compass Fig. 5(b) Compass box

Fig. 6 Graduation marking

Fig. 7 Prismatic compass

ANGLES AND DIRECTIONS

1. INTRODUCTION: Determining the locations of points and orientations of lines frequently

UNITS: Angular distance have units of:

2. KINDS OF HORIZONTAL ANGLES: The kinds of horizontal angles most commonly

2.2 Angles to the right: Angles to the right are

Angles to the left, turned counterclockwise from the

plus, and counterclockwise ones minus, as shown in the figure.

Fig. 2(b) Deflection angles

4. AZIMUTHS: Azimuths are horizontal angles observed

A line’s forward direction can be given by its forward

Fig. 4(c) Understanding forward and back bearing

geodetic azimuth = magnetic azimuth ± magnetic declination

Q6: Apply the correction for local attraction:

Fig. 5(a) Surveyor’s compass Fig. 5(b) Compass box

Fig. 6 Graduation marking

Fig. 7 Prismatic compass

Levelling results are used to:

2.3 Level line: A line in a level surface—therefore, a curved line.

2.7 Elevation: An elevation is a vertical distance above or below a reference datum. In

Fig. 1 Levelling concept

3.1 Differential levelling: Differential levelling is used to determine differences in elevation

4. THEORY OF DIFFERENTIAL LEVELLING: In this most commonly employed method, a

Fig. 2 Basic concept of differential levelling

Arithmetic check: The arithmetic involved in reduction of the levels is used as

Fig. 3(a) Curvature and refraction Fig. 3(b) Refraction

Displacement resulting from refraction is variable. It depends on atmospheric conditions, length

Q4: Find the reduced level of all points given that;

5. TRIGNOMETRIC LEVELLING: The difference in elevation between two points can be

Fig. 4 Trigonometric levelling