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Mineral classification principles

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• John T. Jenkins
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DOI: https://doi-org.nls.idm.oclc.org/10.1007/0-387-30720-6_77
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ases of Mineral Classifications
Minerals may be arranged in order of increasing specific gravities or hardness, according to
luster, optical properties, or crystal structure. All minerals possessing the same chemical
element as an important constituent may be grouped together. Minerals may be arranged
according to chemical class. Each of the systems has its own uses.
A classification of the nonsilicate minerals founded upon both chemistry and crystal structure
has become accepted as being of greatest use to the earth scientist. Conceived by Berzelius in
1814, this scheme is developed in its most elaborate form in the 7th edition of Dana's System
of Mineralogy (Palache, et al.). The Berzelius-Dana system brings together minerals having
similar chemical and structural properties with increasing degree of intimacy, is
comprehensive, and provides a flexible numerical coding scheme that permits the placement
of any mineral species in its logical position in relation to all other species.

Mineral Species
The fundamental unit of mineral classification is the mineral species. The Mineralogical
Society of America in 1923 defined this unit as follows: A mineral species is a naturally
occurring homogeneous substance of inorganic origin, in chemical composition either definite
or ranging between certain limits, possessing characteristic physical properties and usually a
crystalline structure.
In spite of certain shortcomings, this definition or a variation thereof is still useful.
It may be challenged on several grounds. The phrase “of Inorganic origin” is questionable, for
the minerals graphite and certain occurrences of sulfur andcalcite are of organic origin, and
Dana's System specifically provides for salts of organic acids and some hydrocarbon
compounds. The word “usually” also poses difficulties. If omitted, such metamict substances
as pitchblende, thorite , and some zircons as well as amorphous materials such
as opal and lechatelieritewould appear to be excluded. If included, even sea water and air
might qualify as minerals. It seems most satisfactory to omit both these parts of the definition,
but to be prepared to make exceptions for the relatively few solid substances of noncrystalline
structure or organic origin that are generally recognized as minerals.
Most mineralogists would today reject the requirement that to qualify as a mineral, a
substance must be “naturally occurring.” Experimental techniques now permit the growth of
crystalline material that is indistinguishable from its naturally occurring mineral counterpart,
and a large number of the known mineral species have been synthesized in laboratories, Other
substances have been grown in the laboratory that have structures analogous to those of
known minerals, but for which there are no known natural equivalents; these too would be
accepted as minerals by many mineralogists.
Scrutiny of the MSA definition must also be directed toward an interpretation of the phrase
“certain limits.” Cold invariably carries amounts of silver. Can the species name gold be
applied equally to specimens one of which has less than 196 silver while the other has 21%
silver? The ferrous, manganous, zinc, and magnesium ions may interchange in all proportions
combining with aluminum and oxygen. Can One species name be applied to this entire range
of possible compositions? Almost without exception, mineral substances have a capacity for
variation in chemical composition. Modern practice is to regard a mineral species as
analogous to a naturally occurring solid phase in the physical-chemical sense. (A phase is a
physically homogeneous and mechanically separable portion of a physicochemical system.)

Within the system MgSiO3-FeSiO3, a continuous series of natural phases may form, from
pure MeSiO3 up to about 90% FeSiO3 10% MgSiO3. Any composition within these limits
may crystallize as a homogeneous phase. Strict application of the concept that a mineral
species is a phase would demand a name for each possible composition within the system. The
proliferation of names that would result from such an interpretation would be unwieldy and
unnecessary. The usage widely employed is to name the end components of a natural system,
and perhaps arbitrarily subdivide the intervening compositional range into as many units as
convenience demands. Whether the term species or subspecies is applied to the arbitrarily
subdivided units is a matter for argument. When the MgSiO3-FeSiO3 system has crystallized
at moderate temperatures, the names enstatiteand orthoferrosilite are applied to the pure
phases MgSiO3 and FeSiO3, respectively. Further arbitrary subdivision has produced the
names bronzite (10–30% FeSiO3), hypersthene (30–50% FeSiO3), ferrohypersthene (50–
70% FeSiO3), and eulite (70–90% FeSiO3). Mason and Berry (1968, p. 198) and Winchell
and Winchell (1961, p. vi) consider that any arbitrary compositional unit should be termed a
subspecies; hence they would call units of this system subspecies, including the end members.
In the MgAl2O4-FeAl2O4-ZnAl2O4-MnAl2O4 system, however, Mason and Berry regard
the end members as species. Dana's System (Palache et al., vol. 1, p, 43) states that a variety
(syn. subspecies) is a “chemical deviation from the principal composition.” The 7th edition of
Dana's System has not been extended to include the silicate minerals, so no definite statement
can be made about the placement in this classification of the units of the MgSiO 3-
FeSiO3 system. The, end members of the MgAl2O4-FeAl2O4-ZnAl3O4-MnAl2O4, system
are, however, designated as species in this encyclopedia.
It is clear that although the analogy to a physical-chemical phase is a useful one, a mineral
species must be allowed more latitude than a definition as a phase would permit. It must be
recognized that even in the selection of what constitutes a natural system, an arbitrary
decision has been made, for in the definition of MgSiO3-FeSiO3 as a system, it is well
understood that aluminum, calcium, manganous, ferric, titanium, chromium, and nickel ions
are invariably present in the natural mineral substances formed. In the final analysis, the
decision regarding the permissible range of the “certain limits” is man made.
Criteria have been established that must be met in order that a substance be accepted as a
mineral species. The Commission on New Minerals and Mineral Names of the International
Mineralogical Association is generally recognized as the final authority in decisions
concerning new mineral species.
Classification
In spite of the difficulties encountered when a rigid definition of the term is attempted,
“mineral classifications” are built up from the natural unit the mineral species. Once a
substance has been accepted as a mineral species, it may be placed within the framework of a
classification. Most mineralogy texts contain their own organizations of minerals, but all are
modifications of the Berzelius-Dana system. The Commission on Mineral Data and
Classification of the International Mineralogical Association is presently engaged in a review
of the organization of minerals into a logical framework of classification. The classification
outlined here is essentially that of Dana's System, but mention is made of corresponding
divisions employed by some other standard works in mineralogy. Dana's System has not been
extended to the silicate minerals, but the categories used in arranging the nonsilicates are
equally applicable to the silicates. In the excellent five-volume work by Deer, Howie, and
Zussman (1962–1965), the chief silicate minerals fall substantially into the subdivisions of
the Dana System, and it has been necessary to introduce only one additional category, the
subgroup. For details of the placement of minerals according to the Berzelius-Dana scheme,
see Vol. IVA: Mineral Classes: Nonsilicates; Mineral Classes: Silicates; and articles on
individual mineral groups. Table 1 illustrates the arrangement according to the Dana System,
and gives the classification numbers for species of one type.
TABLE 1.

Abbreviated Listing of the Carbonates According to Dana's System

carbonate
s
CLASS 13. Add carbonates (not detailed)
CLASS 14. Anhydrous normal carbonates
Type 1. A(XO3) (not detailed)
Type 2. AB(XO2)2
14.2.1 Dolomite group
14.2.1.1 Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2
14.2.1.2 Ankerite Ca(Fe,Mg)(CO3)2
14.2.1.3 Kutnahorite Ca(Mn,Mg)(CO3)2
14.2.2 Alstonite CaBa(CO3)2
14.2.3 Barytocalcite CaBa(CO3)2
carbonate
s
Type 3. Miscellaneous (not detailed)
CLASS 15. Hydrated normal carbonates (not detailed)
CLASS 16. Carbonates containing hydroxyl or halogen (not detailed)
CLASS 17. Compound carbonates (not detailed)

After C. Palache, H. Berman, and C. Frondel, The system of Mineralogy, of J. D. Dana

and E. S. Dana, 7th ed., vol. 2, John Wiley, New York. 1951. pp. 132–133. Reprinted with

permission.

Class
The first two volumes of Dana's System place all nonsilicate minerals in 50 major categories,

called classes. The divisions are chemical, and ate made on the basis of the anion or anionic

groups present. It is assumed that all silicate minerals will be placed in the fifty-flat class. The

42 classes described in volume two are further aggregated into 13 broader chemical generic

categories, but this is done for-indexing reasons, and these broader categories do not figure in

the placement of a mineral species in the classification. Less detailed arrangements

(e.g., Mason and Berry, 1968) recognize fewer classes (generally 8), and employ the

chemical generic category names of Dana as class names.

Type
Classes are subdivided into types, which are made up of minerals having similar ratios of

positive ions (or electropositive atoms) to negative ions (or electronegative atoms). Within a

class, types are placed in order of decreasing ratios of numbers of cations to numbers of

anions, e.g., Class 4 (Simple Oxides) may be subdivided into Type 1, A 2 X; Type 2, AX; Type
3, A 3 X 4; Type 4, A 2 X3, etc., where A represents positive ions, and X represents the

negative oxygen ion. Although the basis for this subdivision is chemical,

Dana's Systemrecognizes the pronounced relationship that exists between type and crystal

structure. It points out that minerals of different classes with like ionic ratios often show

marked similarities in structure, e.g., galena (class 2), periclase(class 4), and halite (class 9)

have similar ionic ratios of 1:1, and all exhibit a face-centered cubic structure. The native

elements (class 1) subidivde into two types on the basis of bonding, and type 2 (semimetals

and nonmetals) having essentially a homopolar bonding.

The silicate minerals'(not covered by Dana's System) are most broadly subdivided on the basis

of structure, not cation to anion ratios, in all modern classifications. (Such subdivision does,

however, yield structural types that are made up of minerals of similar Si:O ratios.) It,

therefore, seems prudent to broaden the basis for the initial division of the class to include

structure as well as chemistry. Some classifications replace the term type with terms such as

subclass or family, and so avoid the possible charge of misuse of the Dana term.

Group
Many mineral types contain a number of groups; some include a number of individual species

or a single group together with one or more individual species. There are varied criteria for

setting up a group. Most groups consist of minerals closely related structurally and

chemically, e.g., the pyroxene , feldspar , galena, and hematite groups. Minerals that

have similar occurrences, but are not necessarily closely related either structurally or

chemically, also may be considered to form a group, e.g., feldspathoids and zeolites . The

silica minerals are considered by some to constitute a group in spite of the lack of similarity in

structure and paragenesis of these minerals. “When the characteristics of a number of

minerals within a type can profitably be discussed together they form a group” (Palache et al.,

vol. 1, p. 3).
Subgroup
This category does not appear in Dam's System. Deer, Howie, and Zussman (1962–

1965) have used it to recognize very close compositional (and structural) similarities among

mineral series within groups showing great compositional variation. The amphibole group,

for example, may be subdivided into subgroups on the basis of the character of the

predominant ion in the X position of the structure given by the formula

X2−3Y5Z8O22 (OH)2: The X position is occupied by (Mg,Fe) in subgroup 1, by Ca in

subgroup 2, and by Na in subgroup 3. The very complex chemical substitution possible in

some silicate minerals makes this category a useful one for silicate classification. It is

unnecessary, however, in subdividing the nonsilicates.

Series
“Minerals showing a continuous variation in their properties with change in composition are

called series....In such instances, the natural mineralogical unit is the series, and an arbitrary

segmentation does not give an adequate picture of any part of the series” (P 2-lache et al., vol.

1, p. 3). Nearly all minerals show some variation in both composition and properties, so nearly

all minerals might be considered to constitute series rather than species. Whether a natural

unit is considered a series or a species hinges upon an interpretation of the compositional

variation permissible, hence differences in usage are to be expected. Dana's System gives

the plagioclases and the spinels as typical examples of a series.

Species.
The fundamental unit of tile classification. See discussion above. Varieties and Subspecies.

Species may be subdivided into varieties or subspecies, the former term being the one used in

Dana's System. Varieties exhibit distinctive physical properties (amethyst is a transparent,

purple type of quartz ), or relatively minor chemical variations (electrum is a varietal name

that has been applied to goldwith 200 or more silver). One of the major contributions made

by Dana's Systemis its detailed application of a proposal made by Schaller (see bibliography in

Palache et al.) in 1930, to replace varietal names of species with ionic adjectives prefixed to
 the species' name, e.g., chromian muscovite replaces the varietal name fuchite,

magnesian fayalite replaces hortonolite, and ferrian biotitereplaces lepidomelane.

Classification Numbers
The Dana system provides for exact placement of any mineral species within the scheme by

giving each class, type, and species a number consisting of one or two digits, and if a type

contains groups, the groups are given numbers. The first number of the notation indicates the

class, the next the type. The last number always refers to the individual species or series. If the

species is a member of a group, the group number is placed between the type number and the

species number. The classification number identifying a species contains a minimum of three,

and a maximum of six digits, e.g., atacamite is represented by the notation 10.1.11.1,

indicating that it is a member of class (10) (oxyhalides and hydroxyhalides), type 1

(A m[O,OH] p X q) group 11 (atacamite group), series 1 (atacamite). The practice of

separating the numbers representing each category of the classification by a dot is consistently

followed in the second volume of Dana's System, but not in the first; consequently, in a few

cases some confusion results in the notation for the first eight classes of minerals.

Further reading
Strunz H., 1996. Chemical–structural mineral classification – Principles and summary of

system. Neues Jb Miner Monat (10): 435–445.

References
1. Deer, W. A.; Howie, R. A.; and Zussman, J., 1962–1965. Rock-Forming Minerals. London:

Longmans, 5 vols.Google Scholar

2. Hintze, C., and Linck, L., 1889–1939. Handbuch der Minerologie. Berlin: De Gruyter, 6 vols.Google

Scholar
3. Hurlbut, C. S., Jr., and Klein, C., 1977. Dana's Manual of Mineralogy, 19th ed. New York: Wiley,

532p.Google Scholar

4. Mason, B., and Berry, L. G., 1968. Elements of Mineralogy. San Francisco: Freeman, 550p.Google

Scholar

5. Palache, C., Berman, H.; and Frondel, C. The System of Mineralogy of J. D. Dana and E. S. Dana,

7th ed. New York: Wiley, vol. 1, 1944: val. 2; 1951; vol. 3, 1962.Google Scholar

6. Winchell, A., N., and Winchell, H., 1951. Elements of Critical Mineralogy, Part II, Description of

Minerals, 4th ed. New York: Wiley, 551p.Google Scholar

7. Strunz, H., 1966. Mineralogische Tabellen, 4th ed. Leipzig: Akad. Verlag., 560p.Google Scholar

8.

Cross-references
1. Alkali Feldspars; Amphibole Group; Crystal Growth; Crystallography: Morphological; Mineral

Classification: History; Mohs Scale of Hardness; Native Elements and Alloys Optical

Mineralogy; Plagioclase Feldspars; Pyroxene Group; Zeolites; see also mineral glossary.

2.

Copyright information
© Hutchinson Ross Publishing Company 1981

How to cite
Cite this entry as:
Jenkins J.T. (1981) Mineral classification principles. In: Mineralogy. Encyclopedia
of Earth Science. Springer, Boston, MA

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