Components of Plasma Membranes

The plasma membrane protects the cell from its external environment, mediates cellular transport,
and transmits cellular signals.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Describe the function and components of the plasma membrane

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 The principal components of the plasma membrane are lipids ( phospholipids and cholesterol),
proteins, and carbohydrates.
 The plasma membrane protects intracellular components from the extracellular environment.
 The plasma membrane mediates cellular processes by regulating the materials that enter and
exit the cell.
 The plasma membrane carries markers that allow cells to recognize one another and can
transmit signals to other cells via receptors.

Key Terms

 plasma membrane: The semipermeable barrier that surrounds the cytoplasm of a cell.
 receptor: A protein on a cell wall that binds with specific molecules so that they can be
absorbed into the cell.

Structure of Plasma Membranes

The plasma membrane (also known as the cell membrane or cytoplasmic membrane) is a biological
membrane that separates the interior of a cell from its outside environment.

The primary function of the plasma membrane is to protect the cell from its surroundings. Composed
of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins, the plasma membrane is selectively permeable to
ions and organic molecules and regulates the movement of substances in and out of cells. Plasma
membranes must be very flexible in order to allow certain cells, such as red blood cells and white
blood cells, to change shape as they pass through narrow capillaries.

The plasma membrane also plays a role in anchoring the cytoskeleton to provide shape to the cell,
and in attaching to the extracellular matrix and other cells to help group cells together to form tissues.
The membrane also maintains the cell potential.

In short, if the cell is represented by a castle, the plasma membrane is the wall that provides structure
for the buildings inside the wall, regulates which people leave and enter the castle, and conveys
messages to and from neighboring castles. Just as a hole in the wall can be a disaster for the castle,
a rupture in the plasma membrane causes the cell to lyse and die.
The plasma membrane: The plasma membrane is composed of phospholipids and proteins that provide a barrier between the
external environment and the cell, regulate the transportation of molecules across the membrane, and communicate with other
cells via protein receptors.

The Plasma Membrane and Cellular Transport

The movement of a substance across the selectively permeable plasma membrane can be either
“passive”—i.e., occurring without the input of cellular energy —or “active”—i.e., its transport requires
the cell to expend energy.

The cell employs a number of transport mechanisms that involve biological membranes:

1. Passive osmosis and diffusion: transports gases (such as O2 and CO2) and other small
molecules and ions
2. Transmembrane protein channels and transporters: transports small organic molecules such as
sugars or amino acids
3. Endocytosis: transports large molecules (or even whole cells) by engulfing them
4. Exocytosis: removes or secretes substances such as hormones or enzymes

The Plasma Membrane and Cellular Signaling

Among the most sophisticated functions of the plasma membrane is its ability to transmit signals via
complex proteins. These proteins can be receptors, which work as receivers of extracellular inputs
and as activators of intracellular processes, or markers, which allow cells to recognize each other.

Membrane receptors provide extracellular attachment sites for effectors like hormones and growth
factors, which then trigger intracellular responses. Some viruses, such as Human Immunodeficiency
Virus (HIV), can hijack these receptors to gain entry into the cells, causing infections.

Membrane markers allow cells to recognize one another, which is vital for cellular signaling processes
that influence tissue and organ formation during early development. This marking function also plays
a later role in the “self”-versus-“non-self” distinction of the immune response. Marker proteins on
human red blood cells, for example, determine blood type (A, B, AB, or O).

Fluid Mosaic Model

The fluid mosaic model describes the plasma membrane structure as a mosaic of phospholipids,
cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates.
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Describe the fluid mosaic model of cell membranes

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 The main fabric of the membrane is composed of amphiphilic or dual-loving, phospholipid

molecules.
 Integral proteins, the second major component of plasma membranes, are integrated
completely into the membrane structure with their hydrophobic membrane-spanning regions
interacting with the hydrophobic region of the phospholipid bilayer.
 Carbohydrates, the third major component of plasma membranes, are always found on the
exterior surface of cells where they are bound either to proteins (forming glycoproteins ) or to
lipids (forming glycolipids).

Key Terms

 amphiphilic: Having one surface consisting of hydrophilic amino acids and the opposite surface
consisting of hydrophobic (or lipophilic) ones.
 hydrophilic: Having an affinity for water; able to absorb, or be wetted by water, “water-loving.”
 hydrophobic: Lacking an affinity for water; unable to absorb, or be wetted by water, “water-
fearing.”

The fluid mosaic model was first proposed by S.J. Singer and Garth L. Nicolson in 1972 to explain the
structure of the plasma membrane. The model has evolved somewhat over time, but it still best
accounts for the structure and functions of the plasma membrane as we now understand them. The
fluid mosaic model describes the structure of the plasma membrane as a mosaic of components —
including phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates—that gives the membrane a fluid
character. Plasma membranes range from 5 to 10 nm in thickness. For comparison, human red blood
cells, visible via light microscopy, are approximately 8 µm wide, or approximately 1,000 times wider
than a plasma membrane. The proportions of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates in the plasma
membrane vary with cell type. For example, myelin contains 18% protein and 76% lipid. The
mitochondrial inner membrane contains 76% protein and 24% lipid.

The Components and functions of the Plasma Membrane: The principal components of a plasma membrane are lipids
(phospholipids and cholesterol), proteins, and carbohydrates attached to some of the lipids and some of the proteins.
The fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane: The fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane describes the plasma
membrane as a fluid combination of phospholipids, cholesterol, and proteins. Carbohydrates attached to lipids (glycolipids) and
to proteins (glycoproteins) extend from the outward-facing surface of the membrane.

The main fabric of the membrane is composed of amphiphilic or dual-loving, phospholipid molecules.
The hydrophilic or water-loving areas of these molecules are in contact with the aqueous fluid both
inside and outside the cell. Hydrophobic, or water-hating molecules, tend to be non- polar. A
phospholipid molecule consists of a three-carbon glycerol backbone with two fatty acid molecules
attached to carbons 1 and 2, and a phosphate-containing group attached to the third carbon. This
arrangement gives the overall molecule an area described as its head (the phosphate-containing
group), which has a polar character or negative charge, and an area called the tail (the fatty acids),
which has no charge. They interact with other non-polar molecules in chemical reactions, but
generally do not interact with polar molecules. When placed in water, hydrophobic molecules tend to
form a ball or cluster. The hydrophilic regions of the phospholipids tend to form hydrogen bonds with
water and other polar molecules on both the exterior and interior of the cell. Thus, the membrane
surfaces that face the interior and exterior of the cell are hydrophilic. In contrast, the middle of the cell
membrane is hydrophobic and will not interact with water. Therefore, phospholipids form an excellent
lipid bilayer cell membrane that separates fluid within the cell from the fluid outside of the cell.
Phospholipid aggregation: In an aqueous solution, phospholipids tend to arrange themselves with their polar heads facing
outward and their hydrophobic tails facing inward.

The structure of a phospholipid molecule: This phospholipid molecule is composed of a hydrophilic head and two
hydrophobic tails. The hydrophilic head group consists of a phosphate-containing group attached to a glycerol molecule. The
hydrophobic tails, each containing either a saturated or an unsaturated fatty acid, are long hydrocarbon chains.

Proteins make up the second major component of plasma membranes. Integral proteins (some
specialized types are called integrins) are, as their name suggests, integrated completely into the
membrane structure, and their hydrophobic membrane-spanning regions interact with the
hydrophobic region of the the phospholipid bilayer. Single-pass integral membrane proteins usually
have a hydrophobic transmembrane segment that consists of 20–25 amino acids. Some span only
part of the membrane—associating with a single layer—while others stretch from one side of the
membrane to the other, and are exposed on either side. Some complex proteins are composed of up
to 12 segments of a single protein, which are extensively folded and embedded in the membrane.
This type of protein has a hydrophilic region or regions, and one or several mildly hydrophobic
regions. This arrangement of regions of the protein tends to orient the protein alongside the
phospholipids, with the hydrophobic region of the protein adjacent to the tails of the phospholipids
and the hydrophilic region or regions of the protein protruding from the membrane and in contact with
the cytosol or extracellular fluid.
Structure of integral membrane proteins: Integral membrane proteins may have one or more alpha-helices that span the
membrane (examples 1 and 2), or they may have beta-sheets that span the membrane (example 3).

Carbohydrates are the third major component of plasma membranes. They are always found on the
exterior surface of cells and are bound either to proteins (forming glycoproteins) or to lipids (forming
glycolipids). These carbohydrate chains may consist of 2–60 monosaccharide units and can be either
straight or branched. Along with peripheral proteins, carbohydrates form specialized sites on the cell
surface that allow cells to recognize each other. This recognition function is very important to cells, as
it allows the immune system to differentiate between body cells (called “self”) and foreign cells or
tissues (called “non-self”). Similar types of glycoproteins and glycolipids are found on the surfaces of
viruses and may change frequently, preventing immune cells from recognizing and attacking them.
These carbohydrates on the exterior surface of the cell—the carbohydrate components of both
glycoproteins and glycolipids—are collectively referred to as the glycocalyx (meaning “sugar
coating”). The glycocalyx is highly hydrophilic and attracts large amounts of water to the surface of
the cell. This aids in the interaction of the cell with its watery environment and in the cell’s ability to
obtain substances dissolved in the water.

Membrane Fluidity

The mosaic nature of the membrane, its phospholipid chemistry, and the presence of cholesterol
contribute to membrane fluidity.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Explain the function of membrane fluidity in the structure of cells

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 The membrane is fluid but also fairly rigid and can burst if penetrated or if a cell takes in too
much water.
 The mosaic nature of the plasma membrane allows a very fine needle to easily penetrate it
without causing it to burst and allows it to self-seal when the needle is extracted.
 If saturated fatty acids are compressed by decreasing temperatures, they press in on each
other, making a dense and fairly rigid membrane.
 If unsaturated fatty acids are compressed, the “kinks” in their tails push adjacent phospholipid
molecules away, which helps maintain fluidity in the membrane.
 The ratio of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids determines the fluidity in the membrane at
cold temperatures.
  Cholesterol functions as a buffer, preventing lower temperatures from inhibiting fluidity and
preventing higher temperatures from increasing fluidity.Key Terms
 phospholipid: Any lipid consisting of a diglyceride combined with a phosphate group and a
simple organic molecule such as choline or ethanolamine; they are important constituents of
biological membranes
 fluidity: A measure of the extent to which something is fluid. The reciprocal of its viscosity.

Membrane FluidityThere are multiple factors that lead to membrane fluidity. First, the mosaic
characteristic of the membrane helps the plasma membrane remain fluid. The integral proteins and
lipids exist in the membrane as separate but loosely-attached molecules. The membrane is not like a
balloon that can expand and contract; rather, it is fairly rigid and can burst if penetrated or if a cell
takes in too much water. However, because of its mosaic nature, a very fine needle can easily
penetrate a plasma membrane without causing it to burst; the membrane will flow and self-seal when
the needle is extracted.

Membrane Fluidity: The plasma membrane is a fluid combination of phospholipids, cholesterol, and proteins. Carbohydrates
attached to lipids (glycolipids) and to proteins (glycoproteins) extend from the outward-facing surface of the membrane.

The second factor that leads to fluidity is the nature of the phospholipids themselves. In their
saturated form, the fatty acids in phospholipid tails are saturated with bound hydrogen atoms; there
are no double bonds between adjacent carbon atoms. This results in tails that are relatively straight.
In contrast, unsaturated fatty acids do not contain a maximal number of hydrogen atoms, although
they do contain some double bonds between adjacent carbon atoms; a double bond results in a bend
of approximately 30 degrees in the string of carbons. Thus, if saturated fatty acids, with their straight
tails, are compressed by decreasing temperatures, they press in on each other, making a dense and
fairly rigid membrane. If unsaturated fatty acids are compressed, the “kinks” in their tails elbow
adjacent phospholipid molecules away, maintaining some space between the phospholipid
molecules. This “elbow room” helps to maintain fluidity in the membrane at temperatures at which
membranes with saturated fatty acid tails in their phospholipids would “freeze” or solidify. The relative
fluidity of the membrane is particularly important in a cold environment. A cold environment tends to
compress membranes composed largely of saturated fatty acids, making them less fluid and more
susceptible to rupturing. Many organisms (fish are one example) are capable of adapting to cold
environments by changing the proportion of unsaturated fatty acids in their membranes in response to
the lowering of the temperature.

In animals, the third factor that keeps the membrane fluid is cholesterol. It lies alongside the
phospholipids in the membrane and tends to dampen the effects of temperature on the membrane.
Thus, cholesterol functions as a buffer, preventing lower temperatures from inhibiting fluidity and
preventing higher temperatures from increasing fluidity too much. Cholesterol extends in both
directions the range of temperature in which the membrane is appropriately fluid and, consequently,
functional. Cholesterol also serves other functions, such as organizing clusters of transmembrane
proteins into lipid rafts.
 1. Differentiate diffusion and osmosis

differences: the differences between osmosis and diffusion it that diffusion refers to the
movement of any chemical from one place to another, whereas osmosisexclusively refers to the
movement of water across a membrane. also diffusion is the movement of molecules (solute or
particles)

 2/

Introduction
Imagine you are a macrophage: a merciless white blood cell that stalks, amoeba-like, through the tissues of
the body, looking for pathogens, dead and dying cells, and other undesirables. When you encounter one of
these, your task is not just to destroy it, but to devour it whole. (Chomp!)
This complete annihilation may seem a bit over the top, but it serves two useful purposes. First, it recovers
valuable macromolecules for the body’s use. Second, in the case of foreign pathogens, it allows the
macrophage to present fragments of the pathogen on its surface. This display alerts other immune cells that
the pathogen is present and triggers an immune response.
Let’s take a step back, though. How does a macrophage “eat” a pathogen or a piece of cellular debris? In the
past few sections, we’ve talked about ways that ions and small molecules, such as sugars and amino acids, can
enter and exit the cell via channels and transporters. Channels and carrier proteins are great for letting specific
small molecules cross the membrane, but they are too small (and too picky about what they transport) to let a
cell take up something like an entire bacterium.
Instead, cells need bulk transport mechanisms, in which large particles (or large quantities of smaller
particles) are moved across the cell membrane. These mechanisms involve enclosing the substances to be
transported in their own small globes of membrane, which can then bud from or fuse with the membrane to
move the substance across. For instance, a macrophage engulfs its pathogen dinner by extending membrane
"arms" around it and enclosing it in a sphere of membrane called a food vacuole (where it is later digested).
Macrophages provide a dramatic example of bulk transport, and the majority of cells in your body don’t engulf
whole microorganisms. However, most cells do have bulk transport mechanisms of some kind. These
mechanisms allow cells to obtain nutrients from the environment, selectively “grab” certain particles out of
the extracellular fluid, or release signaling molecules to communicate with neighbors. Like the active
transport processes that move ions and small molecules via carrier proteins, bulk transport is an energy-
requiring (and, in fact, energy-intensive) process.
Here, we’ll look at the different modes of bulk transport: phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor-mediated
endocytosis, and exocytosis.
Endocytosis
Endocytosis (endo = internal, cytosis = transport mechanism) is a general term for the various types of active
transport that move particles into a cell by enclosing them in vesicle made out of plasma membrane.
There are variations of endocytosis, but all follow the same basic process. First, the plasma membrane of the
cell invaginates (folds inward), forming a pocket around the target particle or particles. The pocket then
pinches off with the help of specialized proteins, leaving the particle trapped in in a newly created vesicle or
vacuole inside the cell.
Endocytosis can be further subdivided into the following categories: phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor-
mediated endocytosis.
Phagocytosis
Phagocytosis (literally, “cell eating”) is a form of endocytosis in which large particles, such as cells or cellular
debris, are transported into the cell. We’ve already seen one example of phagocytosis, because this is the type
of endocytosis used by the macrophage in the article opener to engulf a pathogen.
 Diagram illustrating phagocytosis.
Image modified from Openstax (original work by Mariana Ruiz Villareal).
Single-celled eukaryotes called amoebas also use phagocytosis to hunt and consume their prey. Or at least,
they try to – the image series below shows a frustrated amoeba trying to phagocytose a yeast cell that’s just a
tiny bit too big.
Once a cell has successfully engulfed a target particle, the pocket containing the particle will pinch off from the
membrane, forming a membrane-bound compartment called a food vacuole. The food vacuole will later fuse
with an organelle called a lysosome, the "recycling center" of the cell. Lysosomes have enzymes that break the
engulfed particle down into its basic components (such as amino acids and sugars), which can then be used by
the cell.

Image credit: series of stills from video by Margaret Clarke^\textit{1}1start superscript, 1, end superscript(Cell
Image Library, CIL: 12654; Clarke et al., 2010).
[Watch the whole movie]
^\textit{1}start superscript, 1, end superscript
Pinocytosis
Pinocytosis (literally, “cell drinking”) is a form of endocytosis in which a cell takes in small amounts of
extracellular fluid. Pinocytosis occurs in many cell types and takes place continuously, with the cell sampling
and re-sampling the surrounding fluid to get whatever nutrients and other molecules happen to be present.
Pinocytosed material is held in small vesicles, much smaller than the large food vacuole produced by
phagocytosis.
 Diagrams depicting pinocytosis (left) and receptor-mediated endocytosis (right).
Images modified from OpenStax Biology (original work by Mariana Ruiz Villareal).
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
Receptor-mediated endocytosis is a form of endocytosis in which receptor proteins on the cell surface are
used to capture a specific target molecule. The receptors, which are transmembrane proteins, cluster in
regions of the plasma membrane known as coated pits. This name comes from a layer of proteins, called coat
proteins, that are found on the cytoplasmic side of the pit. Clathrin, shown in the diagram above, is the best-
studied coat protein^22start superscript, 2, end superscript.
When the receptors bind to their specific target molecule, endocytosis is triggered, and the receptors and
their attached molecules are taken into the cell in a vesicle. The coat proteins participate in this process by
giving the vesicle its rounded shape and helping it bud off from the membrane. Receptor-mediated
endocytosis allows cells to take up large amounts of molecules that are relatively rare (present in low
concentrations) in the extracellular fluid^{2,3}2,3start superscript, 2, comma, 3, end superscript.
Although receptor-mediated endocytosis is intended to bring useful substances into the cell, other, less
friendly particles may gain entry by the same route. Flu viruses, diphtheria, and cholera toxin all use receptor-
mediated endocytosis pathways to gain entry into cells.
Suppose a certain type of molecule were removed from the blood by receptor-mediated endocytosis. What
would happen if the receptor protein for that molecule were missing or defective?
[Click here to find out]
Exocytosis
Cells must take in certain molecules, such as nutrients, but they also need to release other molecules, such as
signaling proteins and waste products, to the outside environment. Exocytosis (exo = external, cytosis =
transport mechanism) is a form of bulk transport in which materials are transported from the inside to the
outside of the cell in membrane-bound vesicles that fuse with the plasma membrane.
 Diagram illustrating the process of exocytosis.
Image modified from OpenStax Biology (original work by Mariana Ruiz Villareal).
Some of these vesicles come from the Golgi apparatus and contain proteins made specifically by the cell for
release outside, such as signaling molecules. Other vesicles contain wastes that the cell needs to dispose of,
such as the leftovers that remain after a phagocytosed particle has been digested.
These vesicles are transported to the edge of the cell, where they can fuse with the plasma membrane and
release their contents into the extracellular space. Some vesicles fuse completely with the membrane and are
incorporated into it, while others follow the “kiss-and-run” model, fusing just enough to release their contents
(“kissing” the membrane) before pinching off again and returning to the cell interior^44start superscript, 4,
end superscript.

3. In animals cells, vacuoles play a subordinate role in the processes of endocytosis and
exocytosis. In exocytosis, proteins and lipids are expelled from cells. Vacuoles don't play a
direct role in the extrusion of lipids and proteins; however, they act as containers of lipids
and proteins. The process of endocytosis is just the reverse of exocytosis.
Vacuole is considered as the 'storage bin' of cells. Along with nucleus, vacuole is one of the
important organelles of cells. The different functions performed by vacuole are listed below.

 The waste products generated in cells are accumulated in vacuoles. Thus, vacuoles protect other
organelles of the cell from harmful effects of wastes.

 Maintaining the right pH level is one of the important functions of vacuoles. The vacuoles help in
maintaining an acidic internal pH in cells. Apart from maintaining the cell pH, vacuoles also
maintain the turgor and hydrostatic pressure.

 The toxins produced in cells have the potential to harm/disturb the health of cells. Vacuoles do the
crucial job of isolating them from the rest of the cell components.

 Vacuoles play an important role in the process of autophagy - a process in which degradation of
cell components takes place. Autophagy is a catabolic process in which components that are no
longer needed by the cell undergo degradation. During the process of autophagy, vacuoles maintain
a balance between biogenesis and degradation of substances in cells.

 Vacuoles are known to protect cells from certain bacteria. Destroying the bacteria that attack cells
is an important function performed by vacuoles.

 The food vacuoles found in amoeba perform the important job of digestion.
 4.
Answer:
The main difference is that diffusion does not involve particular structures while facilitated diffusion
does.
Explanation:
Diffusion refers to the movement of molecules along concentration gradient(i.e. from higher
concentration to lower concentration). e.g. movement of small molecules like water across cell
membrane.
However, unlike water, larger molecules cannot simply diffuse in and out of cell through plasma
membrane and require specific structure to help them move. These are transport proteins also called
carrier proteins.

Vesicle Transport
Some molecules or particles are just too large to pass through the plasma membrane or to move
through a transport protein. So cells use two other active transport processes to move these
macromolecules (large molecules) into or out of the cell. Vesicles or other bodies in the cytoplasm
move macromolecules or large particles across the plasma membrane. There are two types of vesicle
transport, endocytosis and exocytosis (illustrated in Figure below). Both processes are active
transport processes, requiring energy.
Illustration of the two types of vesicle transport, exocytosis and endocytosis.[Figure1]

Endocytosis and Exocytosis

Endocytosis is the process of capturing a substance or particle from outside the cell by engulfing it
with the cell membrane. The membrane folds over the substance and it becomes completely
enclosed by the membrane. At this point a membrane-bound sac, or vesicle, pinches off and moves
the substance into the cytosol. There are two main kinds of endocytosis:
 Phagocytosis, or cellular eating, occurs when the dissolved materials enter the cell.
The plasma membrane engulfs the solid material, forming a phagocytic vesicle.
 Pinocytosis, or cellular drinking, occurs when the plasma membrane folds inward to form a
channel allowing dissolved substances to enter the cell, as shown in Figure below. When the
channel is closed, the liquid is encircled within a pinocytic vesicle.

Transmission electron microscope image of brain tissue that shows pinocytotic vesicles. Pinocytosis is a type of endocytosis.[Figure2]

Exocytosis describes the process of vesicles fusing with the plasma membrane and releasing their
contents to the outside of the cell, as shown in Figure below. Exocytosis occurs when a cell produces
substances for export, such as a protein, or when the cell is getting rid of a waste product or a toxin.
Newly made membrane proteins and membrane lipids are moved on top the plasma membrane by
exocytosis.

Illustration of an axon releasing dopamine by exocytosis.[Figure3]

5.

Plant cells actually prefer hypotonic solutions because they have a rigid cell wall that needs the
pressure from extra water inside the cell to stay rigid and firm. Ahypertonic solution will do just the
opposite to a cell since the concentration of solutes is greater outside of the cell than inside.