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CHAPTER 4
4.1 (a) For this case xi = 0 and h = x. Thus,
x2
f ( x) = f (0) + f ' (0) x + f " (0) + ⋅⋅⋅
2
x2
f ( x) = 1 + x + + ⋅⋅⋅
2
(b)
h2 h3
f ( xi +1 ) = e − xi − e − xi h + e − xi − e − xi + ⋅⋅⋅
2 6
zero order:
first order:
second order:
0.8 2
f (1) = 0.818731 − 0.818731(0.8) + 0.818731 = 0.42574
2
0.367879 − 0.42574
εt = × 100% = 15.73%
0.367879
third order:
0.8 2 0.8 3
f (1) = 0.818731 − 0.818731(0.8) + 0.818731 − 0.818731 = 0.355875
2 6
0.367879 − 0.355875
εt = × 100% = 3.26%
0.367879
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2
ε s = 0.5 × 10 2 − 2 % = 0.5%
zero order:
π
cos = 1
3
0.5 − 1
εt = × 100% = 100%
0.5
first order:
π
cos = 1 −
( π / 3) 2 = 0.451689
3 2
0.451689 − 1
ε t = 9.66% εa = × 100% = 121.4%
0.451689
second order:
π
cos = 0.451689 +
( π / 3) 4 = 0.501796
3 24
0.501796 − 0.451689
ε t = 0.359% εa = × 100% = 9.986%
0.501796
third order:
π
cos = 0.501796 −
( π / 3) 6 = 0.499965
3 720
0.499965 − 0.501796
ε t = 0.00709% εa = × 100% = 0.366%
0.499965
Since the approximate error is below 0.5%, the computation can be terminated.
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3
zero order:
π π
sin = = 1.047198
3 3
0.866025 − 1.047198
εt = × 100% = 20.92%
0.866025
first order:
π
sin = 1.047198 −
( π / 3) 3 = 0.855801
3 6
0.855801 − 1.047198
ε t = 1.18% εa = × 100% = 22.36%
0.855801
second order:
π
sin = 0.855801 +
( π / 3) 5
= 0.866295
3 120
0.866295 − 0.855801
ε t = 0.031% εa = × 100% = 1.211%
0.866295
third order:
π
sin = 0.866295 −
( π / 3) 7 = 0.866021
3 5040
0.866021 − 0.866295
ε t = 0.000477% εa = × 100% = 0.0316%
0.866021
Since the approximate error is below 0.5%, the computation can be terminated.
zero order:
554 − (−62)
εt = × 100% = 111.191%
554
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4
first order:
second order:
third order:
( 3)
f (1) 150
f (3) = 354 + (3 − 1) 3 = 354 + 8 = 554 ε t = 0%
6 6
Thus, the third-order result is perfect because the original function is a third-order
polynomial.
zero order:
f (2.5) = f (1) = 0
0.916291 − 0
εt = × 100% = 100%
0.916291
first order:
0.916291 − 1.5
εt = × 100% = 63.704%
0.916291
second order:
f " (1) −1 2
f (2.5) = 1.5 + ( 2.5 − 1) 2 = 1.5 + 1.5 = 0.375
2 2
0.916291 − 0.375
εt = × 100% = 59.074%
0.916291
third order:
( 3)
f (1) 2
f (2.5) = 0.375 + ( 2.5 − 1) 3 = 0.375 + 1.5 3 = 1.5
6 6
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5
0.916291 − 1.5
εt = × 100% = 63.704%
0.916291
fourth order:
( 4)
f (1) −6 4
f (2.5) = 1.5 + ( 2.5 − 1) 4 = 1.5 + 1.5 = 0.234375
24 24
0.916291 − 0.234375
εt = × 100% = 74.421%
0.916291
Thus, the process seems to be diverging suggesting that a smaller step would be required for
convergence.
f ' ( x) = 75 x 2 − 12 x + 7
function values:
forward:
164.56 − 102
f ' (2) = = 312.8
0.2
283 − 312.8
εt = × 100% = 10.53%
283
backward:
102 − 50.96
f ' (2) = = 255.2
0.2
283 − 255.2
εt = × 100% = 9.823%
283
centered:
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6
164.56 − 50.96
f ' (2) = = 284
2(0.2)
283 − 284
εt = × 100% = 0.353%
283
Both the forward and backward have errors that can be approximated by (recall Eq. 4.15),
f " ( xi )
Et ≈ h
2
288
Et ≈ 0.2 = 28.8
2
This is very close to the actual error that occurred in the approximations
( 3)
f ( xi ) 2 150
Et ≈ − h =− 0.2 2 = −1
6 6
which is exact: Et = 283 – 284 = –1. This result occurs because the original function is a cubic
equation which has zero fourth and higher derivatives.
f " ( x) = 150 x − 12
h = 0.25:
h = 0.125:
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7
Both results are exact because the errors are a function of 4th and higher derivatives which are
zero for a 3rd-order polynomial.
4.8
(
∂v cgte − ( c / m )t − gm 1 − e − ( c / m )t
=
)
= −1.38666
∂c c2
∂v ~
∆v(c~ ) = ∆c = 1.38666(1.5) = 2.079989
∂c
v(12.5) =
9.8(50)
12.5
( )
1 − e −12.5( 6 ) / 50 = 30.4533
v = 30.4533 ± 2.079989
Thus, the bounds computed with the first-order analysis range from 28.3733 to 32.5333. This
result can be verified by computing the exact values as
v(c − ∆c) =
9.8(50)
11
( )
1 − e − (11 / 50) 6 = 32.6458
v(c + ∆c) =
9.8(50)
14
( )
1 − e −(14 / 50) 6 = 28.4769
4.9
v(12.5) =
9.8(50)
12.5
( )
1 − e −12.5( 6 ) / 50 = 30.4533
~ ) = ∂v ∆c~ + ∂v ∆m
∆v(c~, m ~
∂c ∂m
(
∂v cgte − ( c / m )t − gm 1 − e − ( c / m )t
=
)
= −1.38666
∂c c2
∂v gt −( c / m ) t g
= e
∂m m
( )
+ 1 − e −( c / m ) t = 0.871467
c
∆v(c~, m
~ ) = − 1.38666 (1.5) + 0.871467 ( 2) = 2.079989 + 1.742934 = 3.822923
v = 30.4533 ± 3.822923
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8
~ ∂H ~
∆H (T ) = ∆T
∂T
∂H
= 4 AeσT 3 = 4(0.15)0.9(5.67 × 10 −8 )650 3 = 8.408
∂T
~
∆H (T ) = 8.408( 20) = 168.169
Exact error:
~
∆H (T ) = 8.408( 40) = 336.3387
Exact error:
Again, the first-order approximation is close to the exact result. The results are good because
H(T) is nearly linear over the ranges we are examining. This is illustrated by the following
plot.
2000
1600
1200
800
550 600 650 700 750
H = 4πr 2 eσT 4
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9
∂H ~ ∂H ~ ∂H ~
∆H = ∆r + ∆e + ∆T
∂r ∂e ∂T
∂H
= 8πreσT 4 = 17,603.84
∂r
∂H
= 4πr 2σT 4 = 1466.987
∂e
∂H
= 16πr 2 eσT 3 = 9.6021
∂T
1829.178 − 936.6372
∆H true = = 446.2703
2
1
1.00001
(a) 2 1.00001 − 1 = 1.00001(158.1139) = 157.617
CN =
1.00001 − 1 + 1 1.003162
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10
300
300 − 1
(c) −6
300 + 1 = 300( −5.555556 × 10 ) = −0.99999444
2
CN =
300 2 + 1 − 300 0.0016667
− xe − x − e − x + 1
x
x2 0.001(0.499667)
(d) CN = =
− 0.9995
= −0.0005
e −1
−x
x
The result is ill-conditioned because, as in the following plot, the function has a singularity at
x = π.
2000
1000
0
3.08 3.1 3.12 3.14 3.16 3.18 3.2
-1000
-2000
f (u , v) = u + v
∂f ~ ∂f ~
∆f = ∆u + ∆v
∂u ∂v
∂f ∂f
=1 =1
∂u ∂v
Multiplication:
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11
f (u , v) = u ⋅ v
∂f ∂f
=v =u
∂u ∂v
Division:
f (u , v) = u / v
∂f 1 ∂f u
= = 2
∂u v ∂v v
1 u
f (u~, v~ ) = ∆u~ + 2 ∆v~
v v
v ∆u~ + u ∆v~
f (u~, v~ ) =
v2
4.14
f ( x) = ax 2 + bx + c
f ' ( x) = 2ax + b
f " ( x) = 2a
2a 2
ax i2+1 + bx i +1 + c = axi2 + bx i + c + (2ax i + b)( xi +1 − xi ) + ( xi +1 − 2 xi +1 xi + xi2 )
2!
Collect terms
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12
∂Q ∂Q
∆Q = ∆n + ∆S
∂n ∂S
∂Q 1 ( BH ) 5 / 3 ∂Q 1 ( BH ) 5 / 3 1
=− 2 S 0.5 = −50.74 = = 2536.9
∂n n ( B + 2H ) 2 / 3 ∂S n ( B + 2 H ) 2/3
2S 0.5
The error from the roughness is about 2 times the error caused by the uncertainty in the slope.
Thus, improving the precision of the roughness measurement would be the best strategy.
ε s = 0.5 × 10 2 − 2 % = 0.5%
zero order:
1
=1
1− x
1.11111 − 1
εt = × 100% = 10%
1.11111
first order:
1
= 1 + 0.1 = 1.1
1− x
1.1 − 1
ε t = 1% εa = × 100% = 9.0909%
1.1
second order:
1
= 1 + 0.1 + 0.01 = 1.11
1− x
1.11 − 1.1
ε t = 0.1% εa = × 100% = 0.9009009%
1.11
third order:
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publisher, or used beyond the limited distribution to teachers and educators permitted by McGraw-Hill for their individual
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13
1
= 1 + 0.1 + 0.01 + 0.001 = 1.111
1− x
1.111 − 1.11
ε t = 0.01% εa = × 100% = 0.090009%
1.111
Since the approximate error is below 0.5%, the computation can be terminated.
4.17
d sin φ 0
∆ ( sin φ 0 ) = ∆α
dα
d sin φ 0 −β αβ
= + 1−
dα 2 (1 + α )(1 + α − αβ ) 1+α
d sin φ 0 −4 0.25(4)
= + 1− = −3.1305
dα 2 (1 + 0.25)(1 + 0.25 − 0.25( 4)) 1 + 0.25
∆ ( sin φ 0 ) = 3.1305∆α
0.25
sin φ 0 = (1 + 0.25) 1 − 4 = 0.559017
1 + 0.25
Therefore,
180
max φ 0 = arcsin(0.574669) × = 35.076°
π
180
min φ 0 = arcsin(0.543365) × = 32.913°
π
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course preparation. If you are a student using this Manual, you are using it without permission.
14
f ( x) = x − 1 − 0.5 sin x
( 3)
f ( x) = 0.5 cos x
( 4)
f ( x) = −0.5 sin x
The first through fourth-order Taylor series expansions can be computed based on Eq. 4.5 as
First-order:
f 1 ( x) = f ( a) + f ' ( a)( x − a)
π π π π
f1 ( x) = − 1 − 0.5 sin + 1 − 0.5 cos x − = x − 1.5
2 2 2 2
Second-order:
f " (a)
f 2 ( x) = f 1 ( x) + ( x − a) 2
2
Third-order:
( 3)
f (a)
f 3 ( x ) = f 2 ( x) + ( x − a) 3
6
0.5 cos(π / 2)
f 3 ( x) = x − 1.5 + 0.25 sin(π / 2)( x − π / 2) 2 + ( x − a) 3
6
Fourth-order:
( 4)
f (a)
f 4 ( x ) = f 3 ( x) + ( x − a) 4
24
0.5 sin(π / 2)
f 4 ( x) = x − 1.5 + 0.25 sin(π / 2)( x − π / 2) 2 − ( x − π / 2) 4
24
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15
1
f 4 ( x) = x − 1.5 + 0.25 sin(π / 2)( x − π / 2) 2 − ( x − π / 2) 4
48
Note the 2nd and 3rd Order Taylor Series functions are the same. The following MATLAB
script file which implements and plots each of the functions indicates that the 4th-order
expansion satisfies the problem requirements.
x=0:0.001:3.2;
f=x-1-0.5*sin(x);
subplot(2,2,1);
plot(x,f);grid;title('f(x)=x-1-0.5*sin(x)');hold on
f1=x-1.5;
e1=abs(f-f1); %Calculates the absolute value of the
difference/error
subplot(2,2,2);
plot(x,e1);grid;title('1st Order Taylor Series Error');
f2=x-1.5+0.25.*((x-0.5*pi).^2);
e2=abs(f-f2);
subplot(2,2,3);
plot(x,e2);grid;title('2nd/3rd Order Taylor Series Error');
f4=x-1.5+0.25.*((x-0.5*pi).^2)-(1/48)*((x-0.5*pi).^4);
e4=abs(f4-f);
subplot(2,2,4);
plot(x,e4);grid;title('4th Order Taylor Series Error');hold off
4.19 Here are Excel worksheets and charts that have been set up to solve this problem:
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16
12
8
exact
backward
4
centered
forward
0
-2 0 2
-4
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17
12
8
exact
backward
4
centered
forward
0
-2 0 2
-4
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be displayed, reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, without the prior written permission of the
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course preparation. If you are a student using this Manual, you are using it without permission.