Professional Documents
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1 Intro To Agroforestry2
1 Intro To Agroforestry2
1 Intro To Agroforestry2
Prepared by:
Edited by:
SHIELA F. MALAO, PhD
English editor
Published by:
FRGJ Printing Press
8C Sunkist St., Pengue Ruyu
Tuguegarao City, Cagayan
One strategy to enhance effective and efficient teaching is the provision of a teaching
guide. This material was made available for reference purposes to students enrolled in the
course in Introduction to Agroforestry and Upland Farming System for the BS Forestry, BS
Agriculture and BS Agroforestry programs. This material was prepared to enable the students
to learn and appreciate better the subject matter and to enhance their learning capability,
conserve time and effort and have better understanding on the nature of their chosen degree.
It is hoped that through this teaching guide, the students will not only memorize but
also internalize the contents of this material for them to actively practice and become partner
in the proper conservation and utilization of the dwindling forest resources of the country.
I fervently hope for a more fruitful and productive learning of the subject matter
1) Agrisilviculture, the conscious and deliberate use of land for the simultaneous
production of agricultural and tree crops;
2) Silvipastoral systems, a management system where forests are managed for the
production of wood as well as the raising of domesticated animals;
3) Agrisilvi-pastoral systems, land is manage for the concurrent production of
agricultural and forest crops and for the rearing of domesticated animals or in
other words, it is the combination of agrisilviculture and silvipastoral systems;
and
4) Multipurpose forest tree production systems, the system where forest tree
species are regenerated and managed for their ability to produce not only wood
but leaves for fodder and edible fruits as well (King, 1978).
Nair (1984), further classified Agroforestry systems based on four criteria such as:
structural function; agro-ecological setting, socioeconomic scale, and management levels of
the system. Agroforestry as a sustainable land management system which increases the
overall yield of the land, combines the production of crops (including tree crops) and forest
plants and/or animals simultaneously or sequentially on the same unit of land, and applies
management practices that are compatible with the cultural practices of the local population.
An approach to land use in which woody perennials ( trees, shrubs, palms, bamboos)
are deliberately grown on the same land management unit as agricultural crops and/or
animals, either on some form of spatial arrangement or temporal sequence. In agroforestry
systems there are both ecological and economical interactions between the different
components (Lundgren and Raintree, 1983). A system of land management whereby forest
and agricultural products are produced on appropriate and suitable areas simultaneously or
sequentially for the social, economic and ecological benefits of the community (PCARRD,
1979)
Attributes of Agroforestry
By definition, therefore, agroforestry possesses the following attributes:
a. The land management system is sustainable – i. e promote conservation and
enrichment of soil and water on sloping lands.
b. The practice increases yield and services per unit area – i. e. intensifies land use –
addresses land scarcity issues.
c. The cropping scheme combines the production of forest and agricultural crops and/or
animal crops, either simultaneously or sequentially on the same unit of land.
d. The system contributes to the socio-economic and ecological upliftment of the
community and is compatible with the cultural patterns of the local communities, and
e. The practice is consistent with the sound ecological principles – i.e. increase
efficiency of nutrient cycling
Premises of Agroforestry
A. Biological Premise – based on the advantages of forest and trees on soil and
environment:
Soil Conservation and Amelioration – prevents/minimize soil erosion; high organic
matter (serves as buffer against rainfall impact, increases soil aggregation / infiltration);
serves as windbreak (protection against wind erosion); litterfall (source of nutrients); root
system (improves soil infiltration, serves as physical barrier against soil erosion); improves
soil properties (more efficient nutrient cycling, improves soil fertility through nutrient pump,
symbiotic association with beneficial micro-organisms, improves soil porosity, infiltration
rate and soil structure.
a. Water Conservation – increases soil porosity and infiltration; increases water-
retaining capacity (organic matter/litter and crown shade, minimize soil moisture
evaporation, organic matter serves as “sponge”).
b. Microclimate Amelioration – improves microclimate (shading effect, lower
temperature, less air turbulence, less intense solar radiation, dampens
environmental fluctuations).
c. Other Benefits – enhances aesthetic value; serves as source of food and shelter for
wildlife especially birds and other beneficial predators of harmful insects.
1. Productivity criterion
Agroforestry contributes to the production of direct benefits of “productive roles” such
as food, fodder, feeds for fish and livestock, fuel, fiber, pole wood/wood, other products such
as gums, resins, latex, oil, herbal medicine, etc. as well as indirect benefits or “service roles”
such as soil and water conservation (erosion control, mulch, etc.) fertility, improvement
(organic fertilizer, green manure, nutrient pump/cycling) microclimate amelioration
(shelterbelt, shading), live fencing, etc.)
Increase farmer’s income (from cash crops or those in excess of household
consumption). Requires proper combinations of crops and technologies to achieve
acceptable, if not the optimum, product mix to improve farmer’s welfare.
2. Sustainability Criterion
Employs conservation strategies to ensure long term productivity even at the expense
of decrease in present productivity. Requires putting some form of incentive into the
technology to ensure adoption of conservation practices especially by those farmers who
operate close to margin of subsistence.
3. Adoptability Criterion
Should be culturally acceptable/adoptable (compatible with their customs, tradition,
beliefs). Farmers should have the technical skills, financial resources and manpower to adopt
it. To ensure adoption, the farmers should be involved directly in the planning and designing
agroforestry systems.
Roles of Agroforestry
A. Ecological (Protective/Ameliorative) Roles of Agroforestry
1. Minimization of soil erosion and surface run-off – tree and/or other woody
perennial contributes to the conservation/amelioration of soil-water and
microclimate similar to those beneficial influences derived from forest ecosystems.
These trees/woody perennials minimize, soil erosion and surface run-off in several
ways.
3. Minimization of landslides
4. Minimization of pest and disease occurrence. - The presence of different plants
species in agroforestry systems, as in tropical rainforest that it mimics, makes it
less susceptible to pest and disease attacks.
1. Amelioration of Soil Physical Properties - Tree roots can loosen the topsoil by
radial growth and can improve subsoil porosity infiltration capacity when deep
roots decompose. According to Pritchett (1979), the pore volume of forested
soils varies from 30-65 % and is normally greater than similar soil used for
agricultural purpose because the continuous cropping in the latter, results to
reduction in organic matter and macro pore spaces.
2. Amelioration of Microclimate
Trees are not only important in recycling beneficial gases (e.g. CO2 & O2) but also
absorber of toxic gases and other air pollutants. In the Philippines, the national
Environmental protected Council reported that several tree species (Leucaena leucocephala,
Albizia falcataria, Caesalpinia, Caripanulata & Gmelina arborea) have the ability to absorb
toxic pollutants such as SO2 and NO2 (Labo, 1982). Of these trees, Leucaena was considered
the most promising due to its ability to absorb toxic gases.
1. It provides support system of lowlands and aquatic areas in a dynamic and highly
interactive landscape component of a natural system.
2. The place where increasing population of the “poorest of the poor” lives.
3. Contain the tropical forest ecosystem that is the oldest, productive and protective
ecosystem on earth.
4. Contains untapped mineral deposits.
5. A destabilizing force in the peace and security situation of the country if
environmental and socioeconomic conditions are not improved.
6. Uplands are repositories of our country’s natural history.
In practice, the upland areas are the subject of shifting cultivation activities of most
upland dwellers.
b. Shifting cultivation
Shifting cultivation is characterized by a rotation of fields between short periods of
cropping and longer fallow periods. Specifically, the land is usually cleared of forest, burned,
cultivated and after 1-3 years, fallowed for up to 20 years or more. Other terms used to
describe this farming practice are slash-and-burn agriculture and swidden farming.
In the Philippines and many other tropical countries, it is usually practice in sloping
areas called “uplands” or “hilly lands”. For the purpose of this paper, upland farming is
synonymously used with hilly land farming which refers to agricultural crop production in
slopping or mountainous areas. Each country has its own practical definition of the exact
degree of slope involved. For example, in the Philippines upland areas are generally
considered to be those classified as forest lands (irrespective of those actual cover) which
have 18 % slope and above. While in Malaysia, forest lands are those with slopes greater than
25 degrees. Shifting cultivation can be viewed as a form of upland farming.
Fire plays a very important role in swidden farming. Burning is a utilized as a labor
saving means of clearing the land. The ash produced from the combustion of dried vegetation
also enriches the soil. In effect, farmers are getting “free” fertilizers from trees that took
decades to grow and accumulate nutrients in their biomass. However, fire also volatilizes
nitrogen in the soil so that they are lost to the atmosphere.
Shifting cultivators, together with loggers, have largely been blamed for the
destruction of tropical rainforest. In 1975 alone, it is estimated that 20M families engaged in
shifting cultivation destroyed 10M hectares of tropical forest worldwide. However, many
indigenous communities who live close to the forest have developed sustainable fallow
system. Thus it is common to make a distinction between upland migrant farmers who
employ unstable lowland technology in slopping areas and indigenous cultural communities
(ICC’s) who practiced farming technologies adapted to slopping areas.
The significance in shifting cultivation in Asia can be highlighted in looking at two
things: the area coverage and the number of people involved.
Table 1. Extent of shifting cultivation in the Asia-Pacific region (Rao, 1983 as cited by
Srivastava, 1986)
b. Offsite impacts
As a consequence of the above, upland farming has spawned a host of off-site impacts.
This includes impaired hydrology which causes flooding and drought as well as siltation of
water bodies and even rice fields.
2. Socio-economic
a. Low farm income and poverty.
Because of the continuous degradation of the land and neglect by the government most
upland farms have marginal yields. Many of them are subsistence- oriented. This has led to
widespread poverty in upland communities. In the Philippines they are considered among the
poorest of the poor. Understandably, this condition is one major causes of political unrest in
the country side.
3. Strategies promoting sectoral and spatial integration of plans and programs. Multi-
sectoral, integrated, watershed unit approaches in planning and management
4. Policy support
Appropriate policy support for land tenure, marketing and access for different
assistance
b. Executive Order 192 (DENR Re-organization Act dated June 10, 1987)
Created the Department of Environment and Natural Resources which is the primary
government agency responsible for the sustainable development of the country’s
natural resources
Defined sustainable development as “a process of change to meet the needs of the
people without lessening the potential for meeting their future needs, the needs of
other societies, and those of the future generations”
f. RA 8371 (The Indigenous Peoples Rights Act of 1997 dated October 29, 1997)
Provides constitutional provision for the state to recognize and promote the rights of
the indigenous cultural communities to their ancestral domains and ancestral lands
1. Boundary
A system has a boundary. This clearly defines what remains inside (endogenous) and
what remains outside (exogenous). Understanding a system means knowing how the
endogenous pans relate to each other and how they independently and holistically relate to the
exogenous environment. Boundaries can be real or imaginary.
2. Structure
A system has structure. This refers to how the pans relate to each other in terms of
space and time. In other words, structure signifies spatial and temporal arrangements.
3. Function
A system has function. This refers to input-output relationships. A function is a
process in which inputs are introduced, managed, and convened into outputs within a time
spectrum, in order to achieve desired objectives or goals.
4. State
A system also has state. For example, a steady state system is one that does not
experience any change in structure or function within a given period. This would not be the
case in a system that is just being developed, or a system experiencing a declining state of
resources or productivity. Both endogenous and exogenous factors can cause changes in the
state of the system.
5. Hierarchy
There is a hierarchy of interrelated and interdependent systems. For example, a
human being system is pan of a household system, which is pan of community system, which
is part of a regional system, which is pan of a nation, which in turn is part of a community of
nations. This means that the analysis of any system in this hierarchy must take cognizance of
the influence of higher and lower-order systems. For example, one cannot fully understand an
individual person's behavior without understanding the household and community of which
he or she is part.
Furthermore, there is the question of how generally or specifically a system is defined.
One could describe and analyze a human being system, for example, at a general level such
that it applies to all human beings on earth, or at a very detailed level such that each person is,
in fact, a different system. Thus the choice of the precise level in this hierarchy is critical for
systems definition and analysis.
6. Type
Basically, there are two types of systems: mechanistic and purposeful. In the former,
behavior is predictable as the system does not determine its own goals, rather it reacts to
predetermined stimuli (e.g., a computer or an airplane). A purposeful system determines its
own goals and the ways to achieve them (e.g., an animal, household or nation).
Application of a system
There are many uses of systems terminology in agriculture, such as ecozone system,
land use system, farming system, cropping system, livestock system, agroforestry system. Let
us develop one of which is in common use today, the farming system, and refer to it to
explain others.
1. Farming Systems
Most experts agree to a definition of a farming system as a combination of crops,
livestock, and trees, managed in diverse spatial and temporal arrangements, subject to
biophysical and socioeconomic conditions, to satisfy the household's objectives and priorities.
Such a system can be described, first, in terms of structure (Figure 1). Literally, structure is
what one sees on a farm and where each component is located in relation to the others:
boundary, buildings, crops, animals, etc. Often the structure of a farming system is subject to
seasonal variations within or across years particularly with respect to the temporal
arrangement of annual crops.
A farming system can also be described functionally. This is a qualitative
representation, indicating the endogenous interactions among production systems and the
household, and also the exogenous interactions with the environment. It is imperative to
quantify these interactions in order to understand how well this system is managed and how
well it is meeting the household's objectives as well as to identify its constraints.
2. Other Systems
Cropping and Livestock Systems: A structural description of the crop component
alone, that is to say the cropping system of a farming system. It identifies the specific
contributions of various livestock species to the household and to other components of a
farming system.
Agroforestry systems: The presence of trees on external and internal boundaries,
cropland, homestead plots or on any other available niche of farmland, defines the
agroforestry systems structurally. There are several agroforestry systems on this farming
system, and each can be described functional, i.e., in terms of inputs used and outputs
generated.
Similarly, one could analyze systems defined on the basis of other crucial factors such
as labor, household information, or market participation. It is all a question of the desired
focus or emphasis for understanding a given farming system or its parts.
Ecozone System: One usually wants to study farming systems within a larger system,
e.g., an ecozone system. The latter could be defined on the basis of homogeneous
characteristics such as altitude, climate, topography, soil type, or vegetation; or, alternatively,
on the basis of specific farming and/or production systems which reflect to a large extent what
is feasible in terms of the above agro-ecological determinants. The analysis at this level can
be conducted as follows: If one studies many farming systems in a particular ecozone, one
notices common patterns with respect to structural and/or functional characteristics which
provide a logical basis for classifying farming systems. A general definition criteria (e.g.,
systems with maize and cattle), will encompass a greater number of farms, while a more
specific definition criteria (e.g., systems with specific management and yield levels of maize),
will contain a lesser number of farms.
Systems analysis
Systems analysis aims at comparing one system with others or assessing the
comparative performance of the same system over different periods of time. The performance
of a system depends to a large extent how its components interact, both structurally and
functionally. To analyze a system one should use assessment criteria based on the relationship
between structural and functional components of the system. Farming systems in tropical
environments are typically characterized by multiple combinations of structural and
functional interactions and therefore it is important to identify such interactions and to
quantify their positive and negative effects.
The criteria are calculated for a given time period, usually a season or year. If one
studies how and why these indicators vary over the medium term (2 - 5 years) or the long
term (5 - 15 years), then one can assess whether the system in question is stable and
sustainable. Thus, sustainability of a system can be ascertained by studying long-term trends
in the indicators of physical resource status, management intensity, productivity, and
profitability.
Analytical Steps
In a general sense, systems analysis means an explicit consideration of system
objectives, interplay of endogenous components and factors, and interaction/linkages with
exogenous systems; the analysis Uses the time factor as an important variable. On the basis of
the preceding sections, the systems analysis process can be broken into a series of steps, each
answering one of the following key questions:
What is the state of the system? Answering this requires analysis of trends with
respect to changes in the basic structure and/or functions of the system. Stability and
sustainability are important considerations in this step. In all these investigations, the
influence of risk and uncertainty factors (e.g., climate price structure, human emergencies)
should not be underestimated, especially in agriculture-based systems.
Future Improvements
The above questions seek information on the present performance of the systems. If
the task is to improve the system, then one must ask a set of additional questions:
What are the objectives of the system manager(s) (e.g., farmer and household). And
how do those objectives match up with present system performance? It should be noted that,
although the manager's objectives and priorities for the system may not acceptable to all, they
can be ascertained and recorded accurately.
What are the positive and negative effects on the system of the present
component structures and/or functions? How could they be modified or replaced to
achieve higher levels of performance? Any proposed interventions must to be appropriate and
acceptable to the manager(s).
What are the positive and negative effects on the system of exogenous factors, and
what should be done about these factors to move the system in the desired direction? If
endogenous and/or exogenous changes should be carried out, what adjustments of structure
and/or function are required by the system manager to successfully implement the proposed
changes? Are they feasible technically, managerially, and economically?
The primary focus analysis of system performance is the identification of constraints
and key opportunities for improvement. This leads to a better understanding of the type of
changes to structure and function that would be required to make the system perform as
expected by its manger(s) - whether fine-tuning, incremental changes, or major changes.
Vergara (1987) pointed out that the most viable alternative for maintaining
productivity is the application of low-cost agroforestry systems that promote soil conservation
and minimize nutrient losses in the fragile upland ecosystem. The system should be an
integral agroforestry that involves simultaneous and continuous cropping with annuals and
perennials and in the long run, maximizes productivity and site protection thus promoting
sustainability.
Nair (1984) stressed that agroforestry as a production system combines soil-
conserving and soil-improving perennials with food crops to possess the potentials achieving
the desired sustainability in upland areas. The increasing dependence of modern agricultural
technology on high value inputs on one hand and the deteriorating economic situation of most
developing countries on the other hand have led to an increasing awareness of the potentials
of conservation-oriented agroforestry technologies. Agroforestry encompasses a wide variety
of land-use systems to increase productivity and generate better economic returns while
promoting the conservation of soil, plant, and water resources.
These forested areas, which range in size from 500m2 to 5 hectares (Anonymous,
1983) are managed according to a set of laws that stipulate among in relation to rice fields and
the tree species that are suitable to plants (Halos, 1982)
Examples:
1. The Ikalahan tribe of the Nueva Vizcaya, Philippines.
2. Hanunuo tribes of Mindoro, Philippines.
3. The Naalad improved fallow system located in Barangay (village)
Naalad in the Municipality of Naalad, Cebu City.
First, instead of waiting for natural succession processes to revegetate the fallow,
the farmers plant L. leucocephala to shorten the fallow period from ten or more years to
only five to six years.
Second, at the end of the fallow period, farmers cut the L. leucocephala branches
and twigs but instead of burning the biomass as they do in shifting cultivation, they pile
them along the contours to form a fascine-like structure locally known as balabag or
babag, which help conserve the soil. The balabag are spaced from 1 m - 2 m and the
alleys formed between are planted to corn and tobacco.
3. Multi-storey System
Characterized by the presence of stratified canopy.
Examples:
1. In the Philippines, the most predominant is the coconut-based multi-storey.
2. The forest component of the Ifugao rice terraces is composed of forest trees,
bamboos, rattan & medicinal plants. The species diversity exceeds that of a
natural forest (Olofson, 1983).
3. Home gardens with varying degree of diversity are also common throughout
the Philippines.
4. Benguet Pine (Pinus kesiys) and coffee.
5. Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) and agricultural crops practiced in
Benguet like alnus, japonica, and coffee.
6. Leucaena leucocephala and coffee practiced in Iloilo National College of
agriculture (INCA).
7. Rain tree (Samanea saman) and coffee practiced in Negros, Occidental and
Ifugao.
8. Paraserianthes falcataria and coffee or abaca practiced in Bukidnon.
In addition to the income generating role of this system, it also provides protection to
the site. The layered canopies reduce the impact of rainfall and thus, reduce accelerated soil
erosion. The litter falls serve not only as a soil cover cushion the drip flow but also provide
the necessary organic matter for growth and development of the plant species grown. The
phenomena of nutrient pumping and biodiversity also exist in this system.
This system is characterized by randomly mixing various species that create at least
two layers of canopy. It mimics the structure of a tropical rainforest with its attendant
advantages. The upper canopy is composed of light-demanding species, while the understorey
is made up of shade-tolerant species.
Multistorey system can be developed where there is existing monoculture (only one
species) plantation, such as coconut and forest tree plantations. Planting configuration of the
main tree crop is planted with wide spacing to allow enough light for layers of shade-tolerant
crops.
The Alley cropping system
Alley cropping is one of the simplest and most widespread agroforestry practices in
sloping lands. It involves planting of hedgerows along the contours and growing agricultural
crops in the "alleys" formed between hedgerows. The hedgerows are planted to one or more
rows of woody perennials and are regularly pruned to prevent shading. Prunings are used as
green manure or mulch, which contributes to the soil nutrients when decomposed, thereby
promoting efficient nutrient cycle.
Planting hedgerows is done to minimize soil erosion by trapping sediments at the base of the
hedgerows and reducing surface runoff velocity. After a few years, terraces are formed. Alley
cropping is applicable in stabilizing and promoting the sustainability of upland (hilly land)
farms devoted to annual crops such as corn, rice, and vegetables. Without hedgerows, these
farms are most ecologically vulnerable to erosion with rates of up to 200 t/ha as against the
maximum acceptable level of 12 t/ha.
1. Livestock-Under-Tree
Animals (e.g. cattle, sheep, goats, etc.) are allowed to graze freely underneath
the relatively mature tree plantations. These plantations are for wood or fruit
production. An example is the silvipasture scheme of Nasipit Lumber Company in
Agusan. The cattle are allowed to graze under the 'lumbang' (Aleurites moluccanna)
trees where improved forage grasses are grown. With this scheme nuts for linseed oil
and meat from grazing cattle are simultaneously produced. The cattle keep the grasses
trimmed down, saving labor costs in cleaning the plantation, and making it easy to
collect the fallen lumbang nuts. The cattle dung scattered over the plantation area
serves as an excellent organic fertilizer.
2. Protein Bank
Leguminous fodder trees or shrubs (e.g., 'ipil-ipil' [Leucaena leucocephala],
'kakawate' [Gliricidia sepium], desmodium [Desmodium rensonii], etc.) are
established as small stands on certain portions of the farm or pasture area serving as a
supplementary source of protein-rich fodder for livestock. They also serve as fence.
They are regularly pruned and the top and branch prunings are then fed to animals.
3. Live Fence
Trees or shrubs with foliage which are palatable to livestock are grown around
a certain grassland area to enclose the grazing animals. Aside from the trees' role as
live fence, they can be managed (e.g., regular top pruning to encourage more lateral
branching) such that the enclosed animals can browse on the low-lying branches for
fodder supplement.
2. Multistorey + Animals
This is similar to the multistorey under agrisilvicultural system, except that in
this case, grazing animals are an added component. A good example is the coconut-
lanzones mixture, with horses (or cattle) grazing under them as observed in Laguna
and Quezon provinces.
Forms of SALT
An A-frame is an essential tool in preparing the land for many of the agroforestry
technologies mentioned in this manual. It enables a farmer to mark the slope, or contour of
the land, so that it can be used in a way that minimizes erosion. It can be easily made by a
farmer using materials that are found in the farm.
E. Prepare to use the “A-Frame” for marking level lines (contours) as follows:
1. Place the A-Frame in an upright position. Mark the sport where the legs of the
frame touch the ground. Then mark the crossbar where it is crossed by the
weighted string.
2. Reverse the position of the A-Frame’s legs such that left leg is exactly on the same
spot where the right leg was and vice-versa. Again, mark the crossbar where is
crossed by the weighted string.
3. Now place a permanent mark midway between the first mark and the second mark.
4. When the string crosses the permanent mark this means both legs are resting on
the level line.
5. Move the A-Frame to another site and position it such that the weighted string
passes through the permanent mark or mid-point. Mark where the legs touch the
ground.
6. Reserve the position of the leg as in (b) above. If the string passes through the
same point, this means that the A-Frame is standing on level ground and that the
middle mark or mid-point indicates level position. If not, repeat the same
procedure to find the correct mid-point on the crossbar.
7. Pivot leg around until string hangs over midpoint. Drive stake into ground.
C. Move the A-Frame forward by placing the first leg on the spot where the second leg
stood before. Adjust the front leg again until the weighted string passes through the
mid-point mark on the cross bar. Mark contour lines. Follow this procedure until you
reach the boundary on the other side of the field.
Alternative Tools for Locating Contour Lines
There are a number of alternative tools that one can use in locating contour lines. For
example, one may use an ordinary carpenter’s level in place of a weighted string. The level is
tied securely on top of the A-Frame described in the proceeding section, except that there is
no need to find the mid-point or level position on the crossbar. The 2 legs of the A-Frame are
on the same level when the air space in the level stops in the middle.
Another alternative is to use a transparent plastic tube. Secure a 5 meter plastic tube
with a diameter of from 3/8 to ½ of an inch and fill it up with water. Hold one end of the tube
against the first stake, with end bent upwards to prevent the water from spilling out. A second
man holds the other end (also bent upward). Next, move the front end of the tube slowly up
and down until it is at a point where the water will level off near the tube end on both sides.
The second man would then drive a stake into the ground immediately below the front end of
the tube. The plastic tubing is moved forward, with one end held against the second stake and
the other end adjusted until the water levels off near the end on both sides of the tube as
before. Follow this procedure until the boundary on the other side of the field is reached.
Ways of Approximating the Degree of Steepness and the Distance Between Erosion
Control Hedgerows
Determining Steepness
In approximating the degree of steepness of the slope, the following practical
procedures may be used:
A. A Practical Way
1. Get two sticks, one with a length of 1.80 cm and the other, 90 cm.
2. Stand upright facing the hillside. Hold the stick at one end and point directly in
front of you, in a level position, with your arm fully extended.
- If you can touch the hillside with the short stick (90 cm) while standing upright
and holding the stick level, this means the slope of the land is approximately
100 %. A 100 % slope rises at a 45 degree angle.
- If you can touch the hillside with the longer stick, but not with shorter one, this
means the slope is approximately 60 %. If you cannot touch the hillside with
the longer stick, this means the slope must be less than 60 %.
NOTE: Results obtained from the above procedure are approximate and will vary slightly with
the stature of each person. However, in practice this difference is insignificant.
A. Begin at the upper side of the slope and work your way down. First locate the
upper-most contour line where you are going to plant the first contour hedgerow.
Mark the spot with a stake.
B. Move downhill approximately 1.5 meters (vertical distance). Hold one hand directly
in front of you in a fully extended position and pointing directly at the stake you just
drove in before you moved downhill. Sight along your arm and move up-and-down
the hill until your arm is level when pointing at the base of the stake. The spot on
the hillside where you are standing shall be the location of the next contour
hedgerow. Mark the spot where you are standing with a stake.
C. Follow the same procedure as in no. 2 until you reach the bottom of the slope.
A. Gullies
Contour lines sometimes run across deep gullies. Continuing the contour line on the
opposite side can be a problem for beginners. Several solutions have been found:
1. Stand below the gully and simply estimate where a line would start; continue from
that point.
2. Construct a check dam on the contour line that would run across the gully and
continue the contour line on the opposite side.
3. Use the A-Frame to measure around the gully, continuing the line until it emerges
on the opposite side.
B. Large Rocks / Trees
These obstacles may be handled like gullies (1a and 1b above). Alternately, the
tree/rock may serve as a base point for canal or line, or may be removed from the area.
C. Plowed Fields
Measuring in a plowed field with deep furrows can be tricky. The A-Frame user must
decide if he will measure from the furrow bottom and remove chunks of plowed soil or from
ridges created by the plowing.
E. Muddy Fields
In areas where rains have made the soil sticky, care should be taken to regularly clean
the A-Frame feet. Accumulated mud may cause one leg to become longer, thereby altering
the center. This will result in a sloping rather than level contour line.
F. Wind
Strong wind will create problems in field measurement. The plumb bob will swing
making the centering process difficult. To counteract: 1) a very heavy weight could be used;
2) some farmers place two nails on either side of the center line, or use an additional piece of
bamboo to create a slot for the string. These two devices restrict the swing in strong winds.
G. Limited Stakes
Sometimes, stakes are in short supply. It is not necessary to have a stake every two
meters or so. Every other stake may be pulled out and used again.
Calibration
A. Finding the center point where both legs are level should be done very frequently
to avoid sloping lines. Calibration at least once every half hour of field work is
usually necessary. At the beginning of each field session, calibration is a must.
The reasons for movement of the initial center point are varied. Frequently, the A-
Frame connection points will slip or become united; wood will dry out and shrink.
A small error on the transit may be translated into a large error in the field.
2. Industrial market. Industrial goods are the objects of exchange in the industrial market.
It composed of goods that are consumed by organizations in the production of consumers’
goods or other industrial goods or in conducting an enterprise. The purchase of industrial
goods like installations, operating supplies, and raw materials is likely to be negotiated by
professionals, whose business is to buy that is, by purchasing agents acting on behalf of
certain companies.
3. Government market. The government market do not receive as much attention and
interest from writers of marketing textbooks in particular as that of the consumer and
industrial market. The government market is an integral and important component of the
entire marketing system. The government which is a public corporation like that of a
private business enterprise needs supplies, materials, equipment and others to continue to
discharge its multifarious functions to its clientele.
KEY CONCEPTS OF MARKETING (Diane Russell, Kaala Moombe & Cori Ham)
Marketing is about producing the right product, placing it at the right place for the
customer to buy it at the right price and promoting it to the right customer
Product Price
Variety, quality,
Low price, discounts,
feature, packaging,
allowances, payment
sizes, services, etc. period, credit terms
TARGE
T
MARKE
Place T Promotion
Channels, coverage, Sales promotion,
assortments, locations, advertising, sales force,
inventory, transport public relations, direct
marketing
2. Market segmentation
Customer behaviors differ with not all customers demanding the same type of product
or service. To ensure that specific customer demands are met, market segmentation is used to
define possible target markets. Segmentation is an aggregation process where people with
similar needs are clustered into a market segment with homogeneous group of customers.
The criteria of a good market segments are the following:
The customers in market segment are similar as possible with respect to their likely
responses to the specific marketing mix
Customers in different segments are different as possible with respect to their likely
responses to the marketing mix
The segments are big enough to be profitable.
The segment dimensions are useful for identifying customers and deciding on
marketing mix variables.
3. Demand
Demand is the starting point in market analysis and enterprise development. The
factors influencing demand include price, availability and seasonality.
The general relationship between price and quantity demand is called the law of
diminishing demand which says that if the price of a product is raised a smaller quantity will
be demanded and if the price of a product is lowered a greater quantity will be demanded.
Inelastic demand means that although the quantity demanded increase if the price is
decreased, the quantity demand will not “stretch” enough to avoid a decrease in total revenue.
In contrast, elastic demand means that if prices are dropped, the quantity demand will stretch
(increase). Thus elasticity can be defines in terms of changes in total revenue. If total revenue
will increase if price is lowered, then demand is elastic. If total revenue will decrease if price
is lowered, then demand is inelastic.
The demand price relationship is influenced by the availability of product. In general,
consumers are willing to pay more for a scarce product. The willingness to pay more will be
affected by factors such as availability of substitutes, the importance of the product in the
customer’s budget and the urgency of the customer’s need and its relation to other needs.
Industries based on indigenous fruits would be subjected to strong seasonal forces.
During the fruiting season it is possible to procure raw materials at a lower price as fruits are
available in abundance. At the beginning and end of the season prices become higher as fruits
are less available. Processing enterprises find that there is less of a demand for their products
during the fruiting season as consumers can process their own products or consume fresh
fruits. Demand for processed products would then increase in the time between fruiting
seasons. One way of evening out sales would be to provide seasonal discounts where the
prices are lowered when fruits are in abundance and raise prices gradually as substitute fruits
become less available.
4. Product
Product means the need-satisfying offering of a firm. The offering require a “total”
product offering that is really a combination of excellent service, a physical good with the
right features, useful instructions, a convenient package, a trustworthy warranty and even a
familiar name that has satisfied the customer in the past. Products can be divided into product
classes according to the way people buy them:
Convenience products are products that consumers need but are not willing to spend
much time or effort shopping for. The products are bought often and require little
service or selling, do not cost much and may even bought by habit.
Shopping products are products that a customer feels are worth the time and effort to
compare with competing products. Customers compare products that are verily
similar on price (e.g television sets) and other time they want to compare the quality
and suitability of products before making a choice. In this instance price does often
not play a role.
Specialty products are consumer products that the consumer really wants and makes a
special effort to find. It is the customer’s willingness to search and not the extent of
the search that makes it a specialty product. Any branded product that consumers
insist on by name is a specialty product.
Unsought products are products that potential customers do not yet want or know they
can buy. New unsought products are products offering really new ideas that potential
customers do not know about yet. Regularly unsought products such as gravestones,
life insurance and encyclopedias stay unsought but not unsought forever.
Branding means the use of a name, term, symbol or design (or a combination of
these) to identify a product. It includes the use of brand names, trademarks, and
practically all other means of product identification. A brand name is a word, letter or
group of words or letters (ICRAF, Levi). A trademark includes only those words,
symbols or marks that are legally registered for use by a single company (Coca Cola).
Natural products could be presented to customers at various stages of processing.
Examples include:
1. Raw product (pieces of fruit)
2. Semi-processed (coffee)
3. Certified, organic
4. Graded product (wood, cocoa)
5. Refined (filtered honey)
6. Manufactured (furniture, statue, jam)
7. Bundled/packaged (basket of fruit)
6. Value addition
When raw material is transformed into a product value is added. The raw material
becomes more usable to consumers and they would be willing to pay more for it than in the
raw material format. Value can be added in various ways to raw material. These include:
a. Selection and grading of raw material (e.g fruit)
b. Preservation (e.g., boiling rattan in oil)
c. Transformation
d. Creation of product (e.g., basket)
e. Assembling (parts of a product)
f. Packaging
g. Transporting and distribution of product
Another concept associated with value addition is value engineering where the
objective is to eliminate any costs that do not contribute to the value and performance of the
product. Some ways to reduce non-value added costs is to reduce the number of components
of the product, thus simplify the manufacturing process, or to use cheaper materials. Value
addition is not restricted to the product per se. Services such as after sales care, warranties,
product information, customer help lines all add value to a product and to the customer’s
perception of product quality. Value could also be encapsulated in brand names where
customers would be willing to pay more for a specific brand than for another due to a
perception that one brand is better and of higher value.
7. Market shed
The market shed is the capture area of a market. This includes the area where
products are supplied from as well as the area where customers are from. Such market shed
could be much localized where for instance firewood is traded in a rural village. It could also
be sub-regional/national where for instance fruit products are brought from forest areas to
urban markets. In the case of products such as Amarula liqueur the market shed is
international.
8. Subsector
A sub-sector groups different commodities and products with common market chains
together. Sub-sectors in agroforestry includes:
a. Wood – Smallholder timber, poles
b. Fruit
c. Nurseries and seed collection
d. Handicrafts
e. Energy – fuelwood, charcoal
f. Fodder
g. Non-timer forest products
The key element in any market system would be the people involved. These people
could include:
a. Producers and producer groups
b. Traders, middlemen, merchants, shopkeepers
c. Manufacturers
d. Salespeople
e. Policymakers
f. Transformers, processors (e.g., craftspeople)
g. Bulkers, wholesalers, distributors
h. Retailers, vendors
i. Consumers
They are bound together by different formal and informal relationships and governed
by various policies and regulations. Some of the institutions and policies that would have an
impact on the trade of indigenous products would include:
a. International trade bodies (WTO, UNECA)
b. National rules and regulations on market access (e.g., licenses, patents, fees)
c. On specific markets and commodities (e.g., charcoal, timber, indigenous fruit)
d. Regulating boards
e. Trade associations and guilds (e.g., timber manufacturers’ association)
f. Regulations governing associations and enterprises (e.g., farmer groups registration).
Within these market systems “imperfections” are the rule not the exception. In a
perfect market supply and demand will be matched with price equilibrium. “Imperfections”
come from imperfect information, inequities in power among actors,
monopolies/monopsonies/cartels, rules and practices that encourage rent-seeking behavior.
Outside interventions such as development projects can create market imperfections through
subsidies and handouts.
a. Efficiency in the use of resources. Decisions as to what, how much and how to
produce should be efficient. Thus, scarce resources should not be wasted and
production decisions should be responsive qualitatively and quantitatively to consumer
demands.
b. Progressiveness in enlarging and improving the flow of goods and services. The
operations of producers should be progressive, taking advantage of opportunities
presented by technologies for increasing output per unit of input and making available
to consumers superior new products contributing to the long-term growth of per capita
real income.
Market
CORE MARKETING Products &
CONCEPTS Services
Exchange, transactions
Value, satisfaction &
& relationships
quality
Shows that these core marketing concepts are linked with each concept building on the one
before it
A. Objectives of marketing
a. Micro level
– Individual farmers, firms, households
– Group of farmers, cooperatives
– Community level
b. Macro level
– Poverty alleviation
– Food security and availability of affordable, good quality and safe food products
– High levels of agricultural production/productivity
– Environmental protection/sustainability
Place
2. Conceptual approach. Studies ideas of marketing rather than activities. This is
viewed as a means of advancing the understanding of marketing as a tool aiding
analysis and logic and thereby communicating ideas. They seek ways to improve
marketing and to solve marketing problems through research, logical analysis and
innovative thought. An earlier counterpart of this approach is “Consumer is King.”
The consumer is like a king whose right must be understood and respected. Every
business enterprise must produce something which the consumer wants most, or it
goes out of business. This is the reason why economist describes the consumer as
king.
3. Holistic approach. It is based upon the understanding that activities or processes are
interdependent upon other activities or processes. It is a unified or holistic view of
marketing. The four P’s are interrelated. It integrates the functional, commodity,
institutional managerial, social, comparative, marketing mix, and the conceptual
approaches into one comprehensive whole.
a. Conventional tasks. It tries to charge people’s wants rather than serve their wants;
e.g. losing a deal with a buyer who is not convinced to get an insurance plan. This
is a hard task.
b. Stimulating marketing. It tries to create a liking for something of which he has no
knowledge.
c. Development marketing. It persuades consumers that a new product is a substitute
for something; e.g. looking for a substitute to oil.
d. Remarketing. Refers to the rebuilding interest in the stock market facing a tight
money situation.
e. Synchromarketing. Refers to the changing pattern of demand to match the time
pattern of supply.
f. Maintenance marketing. It refers to the maintaining sales against the erosive
forces of competition. Ready to change or innovative product just to maintain the
level of sales.
g. Demarketing. It tries to reduce demand in a temporary or permanent basis. e.g.
Encouraging consumers to reduce their energy consumption.
h. Countermarketing. Trying to destroy the demand or interest in a particular product
or service. e.g. anti-smoking campaign.
2. Product Concept
The consumers will favor products that offer the most quality, performance, and
features and that the organization should therefore devote its energy to making continuous
product improvements.
3. Selling Concept
The consumers will not buy enough of the organization’s products unless the
organization undertakes a large scale selling and promotion effort.
4. Marketing concept
The marketing management philosophy depends on determining the needs and
wants of target markets and delivering the desired satisfactions more effectively and
efficiently than competitors do.
o. Knowledge about agroforestry markets is fragmented and diverse; not easy to access
p. Trade statistics are mixed up with those of forestry and agriculture
q. The informal sector is very significant, by-passing trade statistics entirely
r. Limited knowledge on agroforestry markets’ importance to farmers’ livelihoods
There are several ways to approach the study of AFTP’s/food marketing. Some of the
approaches are purely descriptive whereas others attempt to evaluate the AFTP’s/food
marketing system and provide recommendations for improving it. The approaches are
Functional, Institutional and Behavioral system approaches respectively.
1. Exchange functions
These functions are never performed in our economy without a judgment of the value
usually expressed at least partially as a price being placed on the goods. It represents the
point at which the study of price determination enters into the study of marketing. Both the
buying and selling functions have as their primary objective of the negotiation of favorable
terms of exchange.
a) Buying (assembling)
The buying function is largely one of seeking out the sources of supply,
assembling of products, and the activities associated with purchase. This function can
be either the assembling of the raw products from the production areas or the
assembling of finished products into the hands of other middlemen in order to meet
the demands of the ultimate consumer.
b) Selling
The selling function is more than merely passively accepting the price offered.
Most of the physical arrangements of display of goods are grouped here and
sometimes are called merchandising. Advertising and other promotional devices to
influence or create demands are also part of the selling function. The decision as to
the proper unit of sale, the proper packages, the best marketing channel, the proper
time and place to approach potential buyers – all are decisions that can be included in
the selling function.
2. Physical functions
The physical functions are those activities that involve handling, movement, and
physical change of the actual commodity itself. They are involved in solving the problems of
when, what, and where in marketing.
a. Storage
The storage function is primarily concerned with making goods available at
the desired time. It may be the activities of elevators in holding large quantities of raw
materials, until they are needed for further processing. It may be the holding of
supplies of finished goods as the inventories of processors, wholesalers, and retailers.
b. Transportation
The transportation function is primarily concerned with making goods
available at the proper place. Adequate performance of this function requires the
weighing of alternatives of routes and types of transportation as they might affect
transportation costs. It also includes the activities involved in preparation for
shipment, such as crating and loading.
c. Processing
The processing function is sometimes not included in a list of marketing
functions because it is essentially a form changing activity. However, in the broad
view of agricultural marketing this activity cannot be omitted, the processing function
would include all those essentially manufacturing activities that change the basic form
of the product, such as converting live animals into meat, fresh peas into canned or
frozen peas, or wheat into flour and finally into bread.
B. Facilitating functions
The facilitating functions are those that make possible the smooth performance of the
exchange and physical functions. These activities are not directly involved in either the
exchange of title or the physical handling of products. However, without them the modern
marketing system would not be possible. They might aptly be called the grease that makes
the wheels of the marketing machine go round.
a) Standardization
The standardization function is the establishment and maintenance of uniform
measurements of both quality and quantity. This function simplifies buying and selling
because it makes the sale by sample and description possible. Effective standardization is
basic to an efficient pricing process. A consumer-directed system assumes that the consumer
will make his wants known largely through price differentials. Standardization also simplifies
the concentration process because it permits the grouping of similar lots of commodities early
in movement from the producing points. Such activities as quality control in processing
plants and inspections to maintain the standards in the marketing channel can be considered
part of this function. In addition, certain aspects of the packaging activity are a
standardization procedure of units of sale as well as being part of the merchandising activity
of the selling function.
b) Financing
The financing function is the use of money to carry on the various aspects of
marketing. To the extent that there is a delay between the times of the first sale of raw
products and the sale of finished goods to the ultimate consumer, capital is tied up in the
operation. Anywhere that storage or delay takes place; someone must finance the holding of
goods. The period may be for one year or more, as in the operations of the canning industries,
or a relatively short time, as in the marketing of perishables. Financing may take the easily
recognizable form of credit from various lending agencies or the more subtle form of tying up
the owner’s capital resources. In either instance, it is a necessary activity in modern
marketing.
c) Risk bearing
The risk bearing function is accepting of the possibility of loss in the marketing of a
product. Most of these risks are classified into two broad classifications - physical risks and
market risks. The physical risks are those that occur from destruction or deterioration of the
product itself by fire, accident, wind, earthquakes, cold, and heat. Market risks are those that
occur because of the changes in value of a product as it is marketed.
Risk bearing may take a more conventional form such as the use of insurance
companies in the case of physical risks or the utilization of future exchanges in the case of
price risks. Or, as is often true, the entrepreneur himself may bear the risk without the aid of
any of these specialized agencies. The function of risk bearing is often confused with the
function of finance. Their differences can be kept clear, however, if it is remembered that the
need for financing arises because of the time lag between the purchase and sale of products,
whereas the need for risk bearing arises because of the possibility of loss during the holding
period.
d) Market intelligence
The market intelligence function is the job of collecting, interpreting, and
disseminating the large variety of data necessary to the smooth operation of the marketing
process. Efficient marketing cannot operate in an information vacuum. An effective pricing
mechanism is dependent on well-informed buyers kind of pricing policy to use in their sale
requires that a large amount of market knowledge be assembled for study. This function is
performed by those who specialize in its performance. On the other hand, everyone in the
marketing structure who buys and sells products evaluates available market data and performs
this function to some degree.
B. The Institutional Approach
Functional approach attempts to answer the “what” and “who does what”. The
Institutional approach focuses attention on the “whom”. Marketing institutions are the wide
variety of business organizations that have developed to operate the marketing machinery.
The institutional approach considers the nature and character of the various middlemen and
related agencies and also the arrangement and organization of the marketing machinery. In
this approach the human element receives primary emphasis.
C C C C
Farmers (F) sell direct to consumers (C): no Middlemen
F F F F
C C C C
Alternative food marketing patterns. Farmers (F) sell to consumers (C) through middlemen (M), The
figure illustrates the need for food middlemen tends to make the food system hourglass-shaped. There are many
more farmers and consumers than middlemen, and middlemen normally be larger in size than the farmers and
consumers with whom they deal. This could provide food middlemen with an advantageous bargaining position
in the food system, and this may work to the disadvantages of farmers and consumers.
Middlemen of Marketing
Middlemen are those individuals or business concerns who specialize in performing
the various marketing functions involved in the purchase and sale of goods as they are move
from producers to consumers. There is no limitation as to the way which they have organized
for doing business. They operate as individual proprietors, partnerships, or cooperative or
non cooperative corporations. The middlemen of particular interest in food marketing can be
classified as follows:
A. Merchant middlemen
1. Retailers
2. Wholesalers
Merchant middlemen take title to and therefore own the products they handle. They
buy and sell for their own gain. The retailer buys products for resale directly to the ultimate
consumer of the goods. He is the producer’s personal representative to the consumer. As
such, his job is very complex. From the functional viewpoint, the retailer may perform all of
the marketing agencies.
The wholesaler sells to retailers, other wholesalers, and industrial users, but does not
sell in significant amounts to final consumers. Wholesalers make up a highly heterogeneous
group of varying sizes and characteristics. One of the more numerous groups of wholesalers
are the local buyers or country assemblers who buy goods in the producing area directly from
farmers and ship the products to the larger cities where they are sold to other wholesalers and
processors. In this group are such agencies as grain elevators, poultry and egg buyers, and
local livestock buyers
B. Agent middlemen
1. Brokers
2. Commission men
Agent middlemen, act only as representatives of their clients. Merchant wholesalers
and retailers secure their incomes from a margin between the buying and selling prices.
Agent middlemen receive their incomes in the form of fees and commissions. Agent
middlemen sell services to their principals, not physical goods to customers. In many
instances, the principal stock-in-trade of the agent middlemen is market knowledge and know-
how he uses in bringing the buyer and seller together. Their services are often retained by a
buyer or seller of goods who feels that he does not have the knowledge or opportunity to
bargain effectively for himself.
Agent middlemen can be broken down into two major groups, commission men and
brokers. The commission man is usually granted broad powers by those who consign goods
to him. He normally takes over the physical handling of the product, arranges for the terms of
sale, collects, deducts his fee, and remits the balance of his principal. The broker usually does
not have physical control of the product. He ordinarily follows the direction of his principal
closely and has less discretionary power in price negotiations than commission men. In
agriculture, livestock commission firms and grain brokers on the grain exchanges are good
examples of these two classifications of agent middlemen.
C. Speculative middlemen
Speculative middlemen are those who take title to products with the major purpose of
profiting from price movements. All merchant middlemen speculate in the sense that they
face uncertain conditions. Usually, wholesalers and retailers attempt to secure their incomes
through handling and merchandising their products and hold the uncertain aspects to a
minimum. Speculative middlemen seek out and specialize in taking risks and usually do a
minimum of handling and merchandising. Middlemen also called traders, scalpers, and
spreaders and are specialized risk-taker called speculator. They often attempt to earn their
profits from short-rum fluctuations in prices. Purchases and sales are usually made at the
same level in the marketing channel. The grain scalper buys and sells grain futures several
times within the trading day.
Speculative middlemen are often the result of the benefits of specialization. He
performs this function more cheaply. Speculator performs a very important job in the market
situation. However, in less desirable instances the existence of speculators indicates that other
merchant or agent middlemen are not effectively performing their tasks. In these situations
speculators represent unnecessary duplication of middlemen.
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